Main 


-.iB. 


GH6  COUNTRY 


made  is  more  beautiful  than  the  — 
City  which  man  made;  that  life  out- 
ofdoors  and  in  touch  with  the  earth 
is  the  natural  life  of  man.  I  believe  that 
work  is  work  wherever  we  find  it,  buf 
dial  work  with  Mature  is  more  inspir 
irt£  than  work  with  die  most  intricate 
machinery.  I  believe  that  the  digtiity- 
oFlabor  depends  not  on  what  you  do, 
but  on  how  you  do  it  *  that  opportun- 
ity comes  to  a  bey  on  the  mrm  as  - 
often  as  to  a  boy  in  the  city,  that  life 
ts  larger  and  ireer  and  happier  on 
the  farm  than  in  the  town,  mat  my- 
success  depends  not  upon  my  loca- 
tion, but  upon  myself~not  upon  my 
dreams,  but  upon  what  I  actually  bo, 
not  upon  luck,  but  upon  pluck*  I  be- 
lieve in  working  when  you  work  - — 
and  in  play  ing  when  you  play  and, 
in  oivinoran&  demanding  a,  square/ 
cleat  in,  every  act  of  life  *  *—- v — * 


RURAL  EDUCATION 

A  COMPLETE  COURSE  OF  STUDY 
FOR  MODERN  RURAL  SCHOOLS 


7  -•• 


WEBB  PUBLISHING  COMPANY 

ST.  PAUL,  MINN. 

1915 


-BY- 

A.   E.   PICKARD 

i< 

SUPERINTENDENT  OF  SCHOOLS 
COKATO,  MINNESOTA 


COPYRIGHT,   1915 

BY 

WEBB  PUBLISHING  COMPANY 

ALL  RIGHTS  RESERVED 


.•    "•  '       ,,-        • 

• 


. 

V 


PREFACE 

This  book  is  the  outgrowth  of  a  series  of  lectures  on 
Rural  School  Organization  in  the  Minnesota  state  summer 
schools  for  teachers  and  of  several  revised  courses  of  study 
planned  for  and  executed  in  rural  schools  under  the  super- 
vision of  the  author. 

While  there  are  many  books  that  treat  of  school  organi- 
zation and  management,  but  few,  if  any  of  them,  are  written 
from  the  modern  standpoint  of  an  industrialized  rural 
school;  that  is,  a  redirected  course  of  study  in  which  a 
broader  and  better  country  life  is  the  ultimate  aim.  Except 
from  this  point  of  view  the  academic  outlines  and  discus- 
sions probably  contain  little  that  is  new.  Even  the  division 
plan  to  avoid  the  evils  of  a  closely  graded  rural  school  is  not 
entirely  an  innovation.  That  some  plan  to  avoid  the  thirty 
or  forty  daily  recitations  usually  found  in  the  country 
schools  must  be  put  into  active  operation  before  real  effi- 
ciency can  be  expected  is  admitted  by  all  who  are  familiar 
with  the  situation.  The  plan  here  suggested  is  not  mere 
theory.  It  has  been  successfully  used  by  scores  of  teachers 
during  the  last  half  dozen  years.  After  all,  "As  is  the 
teacher  so  is  the  school." 

In  this  period  of  educational  unrest  there  is  need  for 
something  more  definite  to  guide  the  inexperienced  teacher 
who  has  so  little  direct  supervision,  especially  the  rural 
schoolteacher.  In  this  connection  the  section  of  the  book 
devoted  to  industrial  work  should  prove  helpful. 

Finally,  rural  education  is  broader  than  the  curriculum 
of  the  schoolroom,  which  fact  the  author  has  tried  to  em- 
phasize in  some  of  the  chapters  in  the  first  and  last  sec- 

333S72 


6  RURAL  EDUCATION 

tions  of  the  book.  Rural  teachers,  normal  training  classes, 
farmers'  clubs  and  reading  circle  organizations  should  be 
benefited  by  discussions  of  some  of  the  topics  here  sug- 
gested. If  in  some  small  way  the  book  may  be  an  inspira- 
tion to  those  who  are  laboring  for  the  upbuilding  and  en- 
nobling of  rural  life,  it  will  not  have  been  in  vain. 

Acknowledgments  are  cheerfully  given  to  all  those  who 
have  in  any  way  assisted  in  the  preparation  of  the  book. 
Thanks  are  especially  due  to  my  colleagues,  Mr.  L.  E. 
Stock  well  for  assistance  in  the  chapter  on  "  Manual  Train- 
ing"; Miss  Marie  Henegren  for  much  valuable  aid  in  pre- 
paring the  chapters  on  "The  Hot  Lunch"  and  "Sewing  in 
Rural  Schools";  and  Mrs.  L.  A.  Bortel  for  suggestions  on 
the  music  outlines. 

Gratitude  is  also  extended  to  Mr.  Lorenzo  Zwickey,  art 
supervisor  and  lecturer,  for  his  generous  aid  in  preparing 
the  outlines  on  "Art";  Mr.  J.  B.  Frear  and  the  Minnesota 
College  of  Agriculture  for  kind  permission  to  select  material 
from  Bulletin  136  for  the  rope  work  given  in  Chapter  XVII; 
Miss  Alma  B.  Campbell  and  Mr.  Carl  Anderson,  superin- 
tendents of  Dodge  and  McLeod  Counties,  Minnesota,  re- 
spectively, for  the  loan  of  numerous  industrial  booklets; 
and  to  the  numerous  friends  who  have  read  various  chapters 
and  offered  valuable  suggestions. 

A.  E.  PICKARD. 

Cokato,  Minnesota, 
May,  1915. 


CONTENTS 

Proper  Environment  Page 

I.  Introduction 9 

II.  Some  Suggestions  for  Parents  and  Teachers 19 

III.  Hygiene  and  Health 28 

IV.  Play  and  the  School  Playground 38 

V.  Training  Rural  Teachers 54 

VI.  School  Management 70 

Academic  Work 

VII.  The  Course  of  Study 77 

VIII.  The  Daily  Program 88 

IX.  Teaching  Reading 100 

X.  Language  and  Literature 117 

XI.  Spelling,  Writing,  Music  and  Art 132 

XII.  History  and  Civics 153 

XIII.  Geography 167 

XIV.  Numbers  and  Arithmetic 175 

XV.  Seat  Work  and  Special  Devices 187 

Industrial  Work 

XVI.  The  Trend  of  Industrial  Education .  202 

XVII.  General  Industrial  Work 210 

XVIII.  Sewing  in  Rural  Schools 244 

XIX.  The  Hot  Lunch 279 

XX.  Manual  Training 303 

XXI.  Agriculture  and  Agricultural  Booklets 331 

XXII.  Horticulture  Booklets 340 

XXIII.  Animal  Husbandry  Booklets 346 

XXIV.  Home  Economics  Booklets 355 

XXV.  Other  Booklets  for  Rural  Schools 360 

Country  Life 

XXVI.  Activities  Outside  the  Schoolroom 363 

XXVII.  The  School  as  a  Social  Center 373 

XXVIII.  Association  of  Schools 380 

XXIX.  Consolidation  of  Rural  Schools 409 

XXX.  The  Ideal  RuraLSchool  and  Country  Life 418 

7 


RURAL  EDUCATION 


CHAPTER  I 
INTRODUCTION 

The  average  reader  omits  the  preface  of  a  book  and  seldom 
reads  the  appendix.  Hence,  much  of  what  might  properly 
be  placed  in  these  divisions  has  been  included  in  the  regular 
chapters. 

Most  books  of  this  kind  are  pf  very  general  nature.  Our 
purpose  is  to  supplement  those  already  available  with  more 
definite  suggestions  and  outlines  for  programs  and  courses 
of  study  not  only  for  the  academic  work,  but  also  for  the 
so-called  industrial  work,  some  of  which  is  now  demanded  in 
nearly  every  community. 

During  the  last  few  years  education  has  assumed  new 
aspects,  which  are  reflected  from  the  courses  of  study.  The 
answers  of  students  and  parents  as  to  what  constitutes  an 
education  and  why  certain  courses  are  pursued  are  interest- 
ing. Usually  the  laboring  man  wishes  his  children  to  be 
educated  so  that  they  will  not  have  to  work  as  hard  as  he 
had.  The  well-to-do  desire  education  for  culture  and  social 
distinction.  Others  see  the  vocational  side  only.  Too  often 
the  teacher's  idea  is  to  cram  the  students'  memories 
with  facts  from  books.  Without  further  discussion  we  might 
define  education  as  preparation  for  life. 

It  should  be  remembered  that  the  school  is  only  one  factor 
in  education,  and,  important  as  it  is,  without  the  co-opera- 
tion of  the  home  and  the  church,  the  needs  of  the  child  will 


10  RURAL  EDUCATION 

not  be  properly  supplied.  The  world  has  seen  many  an 
educated  man  who  has  had  little  or  no  schooling,  while  some 
college  graduates  are  sorely  in  need  of  education. 

The  different  units  of  our  system  of  education  in  America 
have  been  too  dependent  upon  one  another;  that  is,  the  aim 
of  the  elementary  school  has  been  preparation  for  the 
high  school;  the  high  school  has  prepared  for  college,  and  so 
on.  This  routine  is  perhaps  not  so  true  of  the  average  high 
school  the  last  ten  or  twenty  years,  as  the  greatest  changes 
in  the  courses  of  study  have  occurred  in  these  schools;  but  it 
is  still  true  in  the  great  majority  of  rural  schools.  At  least 
their  courses  of  study  have  not  yet  been  adjusted  to  meet 
the  needs  of  the  community  and  to  make  education  a  prep- 
aration for  life. 

The  tremendous  importance  of  new  adjustment  can  be 
realized  when  we  reflect  that  ninety-five  per  cent  of  our  pop- 
ulation have  received  their  education,  as  far  as  the  schools 
are  concerned,  in  the  elementary  school,  most  of  them  in  the 
rural  school. 

We  appreciate  that  the  necessities  of  the  people  of  a 
century  ago,  or  even  of  twenty-five  years  ago,  are  not  the 
needs  of  the  present  generation;  but  we  have  been  slow  to 
adjust  the  schools  to  the  new  conditions.  The  three  R's 
will  no  longer  meet  the  needs  of  society  or  business.  With 
the  demand  for  more  subjects  to  be  taught  in  the  elementary 
school  as  well  as  in  the  high  school  comes  the  necessity  of 
reorganizing  not  only  our  courses  of  study  but  the  units 
that  make  up  our  educational  system  and  the  mechanics  of 
the  schoolroom.  Our  hard  and  fast  graded  system  has 
some  advantages,  but  many  disadvantages.  It  could  be 
tolerated  in  our  town  and  city  schools,  if  it  were  not  for  the 
fact  that  the  rural  schools  are  trying  to  imitate  the  city 
schools.  The  author  has  made  a  study  of  the  rural  school 


INTRODUCTION  11 

problem  for  the  last  few  years  in  his  work  in  summer  train- 
ing schools  for  teachers,  and  has  found  a  great  many  cases 
where  one  teacher  has  not  only  attempted  to  conduct 
eight  grades,  but  has  actually  been  trying  to  run  a  kinder- 
garten as  well ;  that  is,  she  has  had  a  sub-first  grade  or  chart 
class.  In  some  cases  so-called  high  school  work  has  been 
done  also.  Elimination,  combination,  and  alteration  will  at 
least  partially  help  to  cure  some  ills  of  the  rural  school. 

In  commenting  on  the  American  school  system  some  one 
has  made  the  remark  that  no  sane  person  would  have  planned 
it  as  it  now  exists.  Who  has  determined  that  it  should  take 
just  eight  years  to  complete  what  is  known  as  the  elementary 
school,  four  years  for  the  prescribed  high  school  course,  four 
for  college,  and  then,  for  the  few  who  can  afford  the  time 
and  means,  from  one  to  four  years  more  in  some  technical 
school  to  fit  them  for  their  vocations?  How  came  we  to 
have  eight  grades .  in  our  elementary  schools?  Was  it  a 
gradual  evolution  based  upon  sound  philosophy  and  peda- 
gogy? On  the  contrary,  the  history  of  education  will  show 
that  it  has  come  about  by  chance.  The  early  New  England 
schools  were  conducted  by  the  clergy.  These  later  devel- 
oped into  our  present  intermediate  grades,  the  fundamen- 
tals being  given  in  the  homes.  Later  the  primary  schools 
systematized  the  home  training  and  prepared  for  the  earlier 
established  schools.  Then  the  academies  were  founded,  and 
as  it  became  evident  that  the  elementary  schools  did  not 
fully  prepare  those  who  could  attend  the  higher  institution, 
the  grammar  schools  came  into  existence  to  meet  this  defect. 
The  academies  were  organized,  of  course,  to  prepare  students 
for  the  colleges,  then  few  in  number. 

Thus  it  can  be  seen  that  from  the  beginning  each  unit 
was  made  the  stepping-stone  for  that  immediately  following, 
and  it  is  only  natural  that  that  idea  has  remained  so  long. 


12  RURAL  EDUCATION 

t 

From  these  units,  having  their  origin  in  different  ways  and 
at  different  times,  have  come  our  three  divisions  of  the  ele- 
mentary public  school,  primary,  intermediate,  and  grammar, 
a  grade  for  each  year;  the  academy  is  represented  by  the 
public  high  school;  and  the  state  universities  and  denomi- 
national colleges  have  adopted  largely  the  organization  and 
curricula  of  the  earlier  endowed  institutions,  as  Harvard, 
King's  College,  now  Columbia,  and  William  and  Mary's. 

It  is  said  that  there  are  over  eighteen  millions  of  students 
in  the  United  States,  and  about  one  half  a  million  teachers, 
an  average  of  about  one  for  every  three  dozen  pupils. 
Many  teachers  have  more  than  this  number.  An  average 
animal  trainer  will  be  given  about  one  twelfth  as  many  at 
one  time,  and  the  most  valuable  animals  have  two  or  three 
trainers.  This  is  not  because  horses,  for  example,  are 
thought  to  be  more  valuable  than  children,  but  because  we 
have  not  yet  learned  to  value  the  training  of  children. 

While,  perhaps,  it  is  not  the  most  important,  it  is  well 
for  us  to  remember  the  economic  side  of  education.  If  the 
parent  could  be  made  to  realize  that  each  day  in  school  is 
actually  worth  dollars  to  the  child,  we  should  not  have  need 
for  compulsory  attendance  laws. 

Comparing  an  estimate  of  the  average  earning  capacity 
of  an  elementary  school  graduate  with  a  high  school  grad- 
uate we  find  the  former  capable  of  earning  about  two  hun- 
dred and  forty  dollars  the  first  year,  and  the  latter  about 
six  hundred.  It  can  readily  be  seen  that  the  sum  which 
put  at  interest  at  six  per  cent  will  produce  the  annual  earning 
capacity,  will  represent  the  value  of  the  earner.  In  the  case 
of  the  elementary  school  graduate  this  would  be  four  thou- 
sand dollars.  This  sum  probably  also  represents  the  average 
of  the  grade  graduate  over  the  uneducated  person.  The 
estimate  is  for  only  the  first  few  years  after  school  life.  In 


INTRODUCTION  13 

the  case  of  the  high  school  graduate  the  acquired  capital 
would  be  equal  to  ten  thousand  dollars.  Counting  one  hun- 
dred and  eighty  days  to  the  year,  the  grade  pupil  would 
accumulate  capital  at  the  rate  of  $2.77  a  day  for  eight  years, 
and  the  high  school  pupil,  at  the  rate  of  $8.44  a  day  for  four 
years.  A  high  school  graduate,  therefore,  has  laid  away  a 
working  capital  of  $4.63  a  day  for  twelve  years.  Approxi- 
mately the  same  relative  increase  of  earning  capacity  would 
be  true  for  normal  and  college  graduates.  It  should,  there- 
fore, be  clear  that  education  has  a  money  value,  and  it  is 
shortsightedness  on  the  part  of  parents  to  allow  children  to 
remain  out  of  school.  If  the  parents  were  actually  receiving 
this  amount  in  wages  for  the  attendance  of  their  children 
at  school,  the  solution  of  the  problem  would  be  easy.  In- 
stead, it  takes  the  form  of  an  annuity  for  the  children  them- 
selves. Parents,  as  a  rule,  are  not  yet  altruistic  enough  in 
this  respect. 

An  authority  has  stated  that  about  three  fourths  of  the 
students  leave  school  before  finishing  the  common  branches. 
About  one  third  of  these  leave  because  poor  circumstances 
at  home  do  not  permit  their  attendance  at  school,  while  two 
thirds  leave  because  they  and  their  parents  do  not  find  what 
they  want  in  the  schools.  The  school  authorities  must  meet 
these  conditions  squarely  and  adjust  the  schools  to  their 
environment.  The  practical  trend  in  modern  education 
should  help  to  solve  the  problem. 

Comparatively  few  schools  are  run  on  a  business  basis. 
It  is  the  duty  of  the  board  of  education  to  attend  to  the 
finances  of  the  district.  Too  often  members  are  elected 
who  know  little  of  business  principles  and  less  of  pedagog- 
ical precepts.  As  soon  as  school  boards  come  to  see  that  it 
is  wise  for  them  to  look  after  financial  affairs  only,  leaving 
the  management  of  the  school,  the  ordering  of  necessary 


14  RURAL  EDUCATION 

supplies,  etc.,  to  the  teacher,  or  superintendent  where  there 
is  one,  there  will  be  at  least  one  step  toward  more  efficiency. 
If  the  teacher  is  not  big  enough  for  these  responsibilities, 
one  should  be  secured  who  is.  I  have  known  schools  to 
wait  weeks  for  supplies,  because  some  board  member  thought 
it  was  his  right  and  honor  to  order  supplies  that  the  teacher 
might  have  obtained  in  a  few  days.  Board  members  should 
remember  that  they  do  not  suddenly  become  educational 
experts  merely  because  they  happen  to  be  elected  to  the 
board  of  education.  A  certain  member  of  a  high  school 
board  of  education  a  few  years  ago  could  neither  read  nor 
write.  While  this  is  an  exceptional  case,  it  is,  nevertheless, 
true  that  communities  should  show  more  interest  in  their 
schools  and  use  more  care  in  the  selection  of  their  officers. 
More  than  one  school  board  has  had  to  go  out  after  citizens 
to  get  a  quorum  at  the  annual  school  meeting.  It  is  only 
when  one  of  the  periodic  "fights"  is  on  in  the  district  that 
the  full  voting  strength  is  out.  The  county  board  for  gov- 
erning rural  schools  is  gaining  ground,  and  should  relieve 
the  present  situation  materially.  Probably  few  board  mem- 
bers would  admit  that  they  are  responsible  for  part  of  the 
inefficiency  found  in  the  schools;  but  teachers  realize  the 
true  situation  even  if  the  board  members  do  not.  Such 
conditions  are  not  confined  entirely  to  rural  schools,  but  are 
usually  better  in  independent  districts. 

In  the  commercial  world  the  watch  word  is  efficiency. 
Every  piece  of  machinery  is  made  with  that  in  view.  Every 
worker  must  come  up  to  a  certain  standard.  Educational 
efficiency  has  been  the  recent  slogan.  It  would  seem  that 
there  is  much  room  for  improvement  in  this  particular, 
especially  in  the  rural  schools.  One  has  only  to  check  the 
time  wasted  in  the  mechanics  of  the  schoolroom,  the  poorly 
arranged  programs  of  many  young  teachers,  aimless  seat- 


INTRODUCTION  15 

work  and  study  programs,  to  say  nothing  of  the  ill-adapted 
courses  of  study  for  country  students,  to  realize  the  oppor- 
tunity for  increased  efficiency  in  the  rural  schools.  If  only 
ten  per  cent  of  the  cost  of  the  schools  of  the  country  could  be 
saved  by  increased  efficiency,  it  would  mean  a  saving  of  about 
one  hundred  millions  of  dollars  annually.  It  is  a  mat- 
ter that  manufacturing  establishments  would  investigate. 
Schools  cannot  afford  to  overlook  it.  This  amount  spent 
on  better  equipment  and  increase  of  teachers'  salaries  would 
further  increase  the  efficiency.  It  is  not  cheaper,  but  better 
schools  that  the  average  community  should  have.  School 
boards  and  teachers  should  take  this  view  into  consideration. 
A  subject  that  should  be  discussed  in  every  school  dis- 
trict until  all  voters  and  taxpayers  understand  it,  is  how 
the  school  funds  are  raised  and  to  what  sources  the  taxes 
paid  by  each  individual  go.  These  facts  should  be  taught 
in  the  schools  and  discussed  at  the  annual  school  meeting, 
farmers'  clubs  and  other  gatherings.  Many  invariably 
charge  up  any  increase  in  taxes  to  the  schools,  whether  they 
may  or  may  not  have  been  the  cause  of  it.  A  statement 
from  the  county  auditor  will  show  just  where  the  money 
paid  in  taxes  goes.  Each  teacher  should  get  this  list  from 
her  district,  and  make  it  the  basis  for  supplementary  work 
in  arithmetic.  The  following  is  a  tabulation  for  a  rural 
district  in  Minnesota  in  1914. 

LOCAL  TAXES. 
To  What  Sources.  Rate  on  Valuation. 

State  revenue 3.8    mills 

State  school  fund 1 .23  mills 

County  revenue 2.53  mills 

County  road  and  bridge 2.85  mills 

County  poor 29  mills 

Town  revenue  (township) 9    mills 

Town  road  and  bridge 5.9    mills 

Local  tax 5.00  mills 

Total  taxes .  22.5    mills 


16  RURAL  EDUCATION 

From  this  table  it  can  be  seen  that  part  of  the  ta'xes  goes 
to  the  state,  part  to  the  county,  part  to  the  township,  and 
the  rest  to  the  school  district.  In  the  above  case  it  was 
about  equally  divided  among  the  four.  The  figures  natu- 
rally vary  a  little  from  year  to  year,  but  the  sources  to  which 
the  taxes  are  paid  remain  the  same.  Knowing  the  assessor's 
valuation  of  the  property,  any  student  who  understands  sim- 
ple decimals  can  determine  the  amount  paid  to  each  source. 
It  is  well  to  be  able  to  compare  what  the  local  district  raises 
for  the  support  of  the  schools  with  the  money  received  from 
other  sources  for  this  purpose. 

Most  states  provide  aid  for  the  schools  in  some  way. 
Minnesota  is  one  of  the  most  conspicuous  in  this  respect. 
A  wise  provision  in  the  state  constitution  set  aside  sections 
sixteen  and  thirty-six  of  each  township  as  school  lands. 
These  lands  with  the  timber  on  them  have  now  mostly  been 
sold  and  the  money  has  made  a  permanent  school  fund. 
Recently  iron  ore  has  been  discovered  on  school  lands  and 
the  royalties  from  this  will  increase  the  school  fund  enor- 
mously. This  fund  is  now  second  only  to  that  of  Texas  and 
amounts  to  about  twenty-five  millions  of  dollars.  It  is 
estimated  that  it  will  eventually  reach  two  hundred  or  two 
hundred  and  fifty  millions.  The  interest  on  this,  now 
amounting  to  about  one  million  dollars  annually,  is  appor- 
tioned to  the  districts  of  the  state  according  to  the  number 
of  students  in  the  district  coming  up  to  certain  requirements 
prescribed  by  the  state  authorities.  This  amount  is  now 
about  six  dollars  per  pupil. 

There  are  other  forms  of  aid  in  this  state  by  legislative 
enactment  for  the  various  classes  of  schools.  State  high 
schools  now  receive  $1,800  annually,  with  from  $1,200  to 
$2,800  extra  for  those  having  teachers'  training  departments. 
Twelve  hundred  dollars  is  given  for  one  teacher,  $2,000  for 


INTRODUCTION  17 

two  teachers,  and  $2,800  for  three.  Graded  schools  receive 
$600,  and  $100  for  each  grade  teacher  in  excess  of  four  and 
$250  for  each  high  school  teacher.  Total  aid  not  to  exceed 
$1,300. 

Rural  schools  in  session  at  least  eight  months  receive 
$150  for  each  teacher  holding  a  first  class  certificate.  Rural 
schools  in  session  at  least  seven  months  receive  $100  for  each 
teacher  holding  a  second  class  certificate. 

Each  school  receives,  in  addition  to  other  aid,  library  aid 
amounting  to  $10  for  each  teacher  employed,  with  a  maxi- 
mum of  $25  to  a  building,  provided  the  district  appropriates 
a  like  amount  for  the  same  purpose. 

In  many  schools  the  local  districts  do  not  pay  half  the 
running  expenses  of  the  schools.  The  following  statement 
of  a  rural  district  shows  this. 

Sources  Amount 

Apportionment,  50  students  at  $7 $350 

State  Aid,  first  class  school 150 

State  Aid,  associated 50 

State  Aid,  library 10 

Totalstate  aid '  $560 

Local  school  tax,  two  and  one  half  mills 192 

Total  resources '  $752 

In  its  report  to  the  Educational  Association  at  St.  Paul, 
October,  1914,  the  Minnesota  Rural  School  Commission 
recommended  that: 

"Every  child  in  the  state  of  Minnesota  has  an  unquestioned  right 
to  equal  school  privileges  regardless  of  wealth,  social  position  or  loca- 
tion. 

That  the  State  Aid  at  present  only  reaches  the  schools  best  able 
to  help  themselves,  and  that  the  most  needy  schools  not  able  to  meet 
requirements  for  state  aid  are  taxed  to  help  the  more  fortunate,  .the 
county  unit  should  be  used  as  a  basis  for  taxation  for  school  purposes 
and  that  the  finances,  length  of  term,  kind  of  teacher,  etc.,  be  in  the 
hands  of  a  county  board  of  education,  elected  at  the  annual  school 
meeting  and  consisting  of  one  member  from  each  commissioner  dis- 
2— 


18  RURAL  EDUCATION 

trict,  leaving  each  district  intact  for  the  details  of  its  own  management. 
The  County  Superintendent  to  be  appointed  by  this  Board. 

That  consolidation  has  been  an  unqualified  success  in  nearly  every 
case  and  that  it  should  be  encouraged  by  every  possible  means  at 
command,  wherever  conditions  are  such  as  to  make  it  practicable. 
Finally  this  Commission  has  found  that  the  rural  schools  have  better 
equipment,  better  sanitation,  better  grading,  better  attendance,  longer 
school  year,  better  co-operation,  broader  and  more  practical  knowledge, 
better  and  more  libraries,  more  free  textbooks,  more  attractive  school 
rooms,  better  buildings,  more  State  Aid,  higher  salaries,  better  teachers, 
better  supervision,  the  training  of  the  hand  through  industrial  work, 
domestic  science,  agriculture,  manual  training,  better  morals  and 
more  loyal  friends  than  ever  before." 

This  would  seem  to  be  a  more  equitable  distribution  of 
school  taxes.  In  some  states,  as  California,  the  school  tax 
is  uniform  throughout  the  commonwealth. 


CHAPTER  II 
SUGGESTIONS  FOR  PARENTS  AND  TEACHERS 

There  is  urgent  need  for  closer  co-operation  between 
parents  and  teachers.  Very  often  the  success  of  a  school 
is  measured  by  the  sympathy  of  its  supporters.  Teachers 
should  move  into  a  new  community  before  school  opens,  in 
order  to  become  acquainted  with  the  parents  of  all  their 
pupils.  Some  teachers  object  to  doing  this  on  the  ground 
that  it  is  contrary  to  social  etiquette.  This  notion  is  likely  to 
result  in  sorrow,  if  the  teachers  meet  the  parents  for  the  first 
time  after  they  have  had  to  punish  the  children.  If  teachers 
object  to  making  social  calls  before  meeting  the  parents, 
they  should  make  professional  calls.  A  favorable  acquaint- 
ance must  be  established  as  soon  as  possible,  if  the  best 
results  are  to  be  attained. 

Parents  should  be  equally  interested  with  the  teacher  in 
the  school  and  the  training  of  their  children.  An  informal 
gathering  at  the  schoolhouse  or  some  home  shortly  after 
school  opens  tends  to  promote  acquaintance  and  sympathy. 
The  school  children  should  be  present  also.  Such  a  meeting 
will  encourage  the  teacher  at  the  start  and  make  her  feel 
at  home  in  the  community.  But  mutual  interest  should 
not  end  there. 

Regular  meetings  of  parents  and  teachers  at  the  school 
house  are  helping  to  solve  many  problems.  These  meetings 
should  be  held  at  intervals  of  about  once  a  month  and  con- 
sist of  programs  and  discussions,  and  may  be  followed  by 
light  refreshments  and  a  social  hour.  In  most  places  teachers 
must  take  the  initiative  in  this  work,  and  should  be  prepared 
to  do  so. 

Parents  often  do  not  realize  how  much  help  they  can  give 

19 


20  RURAL  EDUCATION 

the  teacher  and  that  without  this  aid  they  impede  the  prog- 
ress of  their  own  children.  Children  are  allowed  to  criticise 
the  teacher  at  home  and  with  other  children.  Sometimes 
the  parents  even  join  in  the  criticism.  It  is  conceded  that 
at  the  outset  parents  and  teachers  have  only  the  welfare  of 
the  child  at  heart.  Both  should  keep  this  common  interest 
constantly  in  mind,  and,  when  little  difficulties  arise,  as  they 
always  will,  it  is  the  duty  of  the  parents,  as  well  as  of  the 
teacher,  to  see  that  they  are  speedily  adjusted. 

A  prominent  educational  lecturer  and  writer  makes  the 
statement  that  the  average  school  has  better  discipline  than 
the  average  home,  and  he  is  undoubtedly  correct.  Yet  the 
parents  who  cannot  manage  their  children  at  home  are  the 
very  ones  who  usually  make  the  most  trouble  when  discipline 
is  administered  in  school.  I  like  the  philosophy  of  that 
parent  who  told  his  children  that  every  time  they  got  a  "lick- 
in'  "  at  school,  they  would  get  another  when  they  got  home. 
He  didn't  stop  to  inquire  whether  they  were  right  or  wrong, 
but  he  had  faith  in  the  teacher. 

Corporal  punishment  should  be  used  only  as  a  last  resort 
either  in  the  home  or  school,  but  that  parent  or  district 
that  prohibits  its  use  is  unwise,  as  there  are  always  children 
to  whom  physical  force  makes  a  stronger  appeal  than  reason. 
Granting  that  there  is  always  some  other  way  out  of  the 
situation,  if  the  teacher  only  knew  how,  there  are  times  when 
the  best  interests  of  the  school  will  not  permit  further  experi- 
mentation. The  parent  who  will  deny  the  teacher  the  use 
of  the  same  methods  he  uses  in  correcting  his  children  is 
unjust  and  arbitrary.  A  wholesome,  oldfashioned  spanking 
properly  administered,  never  hurt  anybody  who  deserved  it, 
and  often  did  much  good. 

On  the  other  hand,  punishment  should  be  used  with 
great  discretion.  The  best  teachers  seldom  have  to  resort 


TO  PARENTS  AND   TEACHERS          21 


to  it.  A  case  or  two  at  the  beginning  of  an  administration 
will  usually  suffice.  A  good  rule  for  both  parents  and 
teachers  to  follow  is,  "Never  punish  a  child  while  you  are 
angry."  It  is  a  serious  offence  to  make  discipline  a  personal 
matter,  and  yet  many  persons  do.  A  quiet,  earnest  talk 
will  often  do  as  much  or  more  good  than  punishment.  Pun- 
ishment should  be  followed  not  only  with  respect  for  author- 
ity on  the  part  of  the  child,  but  there  should  be  the  best 
personal  feeling  between  the  persons  concerned.  This  result 
is  not  always  easy  to  obtain,  but  it  is  a  pretty  sure  test  of 
the  efficacy  of  the  punishment.  One  child  under  school  age 
used  to  thank  the  parent  after  each  of  these  little  "times," 
as  he  would  for  any  other  service  rendered.  There  was 
usually  not  the  slightest  enmity,  and  the  frequency  of  the 
occasions  became  less  as  he  advanced  in  years. 

The  best  way  to  avoid  mischief  and  punishment  is  to 
arouse  the  pupil's  interest  in  his  studies  and  especially  in 
collateral  activities  such  as  school  gardens,  care  of  an  animal 
or  the  investigation  of  some  valuable  facts.  Unruly  boys, 
when  thus  engaged,  have  often  become  forceful  and  progres- 
sive factors  in  a  community  and  the  delight  of  a  teacher. 
They  are  generally  not  so  bad  as  that  their  energies  have 
not  been  directed  into  congenial  channels. 

The  responsibility  of  the  parent  in  the  training  of  the 
child  before  it  enters  school  cannot  be  too  strongly  empha- 
sized. Some  children  are  spoiled  before  they  are  a  year  old. 
That  is,  they  have  learned  to  have  their  own  way,  because 
the  parent  unwittingly  compromises  or  gives  in  entirely  to 
save  time  and  bother.  Between  a  fond  mother  and  an 
indulgent  father,  many  a  child  is  handicapped  for  life,  and 
there  is  usually  trouble  in  store  for  the  teacher.  It  has  been 
said  that  every  woman  should  have  a  course  in  psychology 
and  child  study  that  she  may  properly  train  her  own  chil- 


22  RURAL  EDUCATION 

dren.  It  may  be  said  with  equal  truth  of  the  men.  Too  often 
the  mother  is  the  only  disciplinarian  in  the  home.  The 
father  is  away,  or  too  busy,  or  indifferent.  Occasionally  a 
well  meaning  but  misguided  parent  actually  encourages  that 
"smarty"  spirit  that  is  now  so  common  among  young  Ameri- 
cans, on  the  plea  that  it  develops  originality  and  independ- 
ence. If  there  is  one  thing  needed  more  than  any  other  in 
the  training  of  the  present  generation,  it  is  the  proper  re- 
spect for  constituted  authority  in  the  home,  the  school,  and 
elsewhere. 

Again,  parents  are  sometimes  not  careful  to  use  the  same 
methods  in  training  the  children.  What  the  father  requires 
in  certain  cases  is  not  carried  out  by  the  mother  in  his  absence, 
and  vice  versa.  In  this  way  it  is  easy  for  the  child  to  set  up 
two  standards  of  discipline,  or  "behavior"  as  he  calls  it,  and 
it  may  lead  to  deceitfulness  on  his  part.  Matters  are  still 
further  complicated  if  the  teacher  uses  her  own  character- 
istic methods.  Here  is  another  reason  why  the  teacher 
should  be  intimate  enough  with  the  parents  to  be  able  to 
discuss  these  matters  freely  with  them. 

Directions  to  children  should  be  positive.  Speak  once 
and  be  sure  that  you  are  understood.  The  careless,  in- 
effective way  in  which  many  suggestions  are  given  accounts 
for  the  fact  that  some  persons  are  taken  only  half  seriously. 
Directions  are  too  frequently  repeated  two  or  three  times  in 
order  to  secure  obedience.  Have  you  ever  been  in  a  home 
where  you  felt  like  taking  matters  into  your  own  hands? 
Are  you  sure  you  have  never  seen  similar  conditions  in  the 
schoolroom?  This  state  of  affairs  is  not  the  fault  of  the 
children  in  either  case. 

Education  is  an  evolutionary  process,  an  unfolding,  con- 
stant development.  The  old  idea  of  "pouring  in"  is  sup- 
posed to  be  changed  to  the  "drawing  out"  process.  The 


SUGGESTIONS  TO  PARENTS  AND  TEACHERS    23 

brain  is  made  up  of  millions  of  small  living  particles,  cells, 
each  capable  of  development  under  certain  conditions, 
better  at  certain  ages  of  the  individual  than  others,  and 
very  much  less  capable  after  a  certain  age.  Just  as  the 
muscles  of  the  body  develop  with  use  and  shrink  away  with 
lack  of  exercise,  so  the  cells  of  the  brain  must  be  used,  and 
a  person  must  do  mental  work  in  order  to  develop  them 
and  to  maintain  their  development.  As  it  is  difficult  for 
elderly  persons  to  learn  a  new  language,  because  they  have 
passed  the  age  for  that  kind  of  training,  so  it  is  impossible 
for  a  young  child  to  study  algebra  or  grammar,  because  it 
has  not  yet  reached  the  age  for  reasoning.  Yet,  knowing  these 
principles,  how  many  of  us  put  them  into  practice?  The 
students  do  not  know  their  lessons  and  the  teacher  recites 
for  them,  that  is,  she  does  the  talking.  Parents  work  the 
"examples"  for  children  so  they  may  get  one  hundred  per 
cent  in  arithmetic  at  school  the  next  day.  Is  this  the  draw- 
ing out  process?  How  many  brain  cells  have  been  devel- 
oped? Undoubtedly  some,  but  not  the  kind  that  should 
be  developed. 

Science  has  demonstrated  that  mental  development  is 
dependent  upon  physical.  A  sound  mind  can  be  produced 
only  in  a  healthy  body.  Good  health  is,  therefore,  one  of 
the  first  requisites  in  education.  Games  and  outdoor 
sports  should  be  provided  not  only  in  public  parks  and  school 
grounds,  but,  if  possible,  in  every  home  yard.  Parents 
sometimes  object  to  having  children  waste  time  in  play  and 
say  they  can  find  plenty  of  work  at  home  for  them  to  do. 
There  are  chores  to  do,  and  the  woodpile  needs  replenishing 
or  there  are  floors  to  scrub.  Those  who  object  to  organized 
play  as  exercise  and  recreation,  should  remember  there  is 
much  truth  in  the  old  saying,  "All  work  and  no  play  makes 
Jack  a  dull  boy."  Games,  outdoor  life,  and  good  health  are 


24  RURAL  EDUCATION 

so  closely  related  to  each  other  and  to  mental  development 
that  they  will  be  discussed  fully  in  the  next  two  chapters. 

Child  study  has  brought  out  the  fact  that  there  are  three 
more  or  less  distinct  periods  in  the  physical  and  mental 
development  of  the  individual:  (1)  the  period  before  eight 
years,  in  which  the  child  is  taught  by  precept  and  learns 
largely  by  imitation;  (2)  from  eight  to  fourteen,  sometimes 
spoken  of  as  the  drill  age;  and  (3)  that  after  fourteen, 
known  as  the  adolescent  period.  Knowledge  of  the  chief 
characteristics  of  these  periods  will  greatly  assist  those  in 
charge  of  the  training  of  children,  and  books  on  this  subject 
should  be  read  by  every  parent  and  teacher. 

Most  of  the  first  period,  of  course,  is  spent  in  the  home 
before  the  child  attends  school.  The  importance  of  proper 
home  training  is  evident  from  the  statement  of  authorities 
that  the  child  learns  more  during  the  first  five  years  of  its 
life  than  in  any  other  five  years.  Its  chief  acquisition  is  a 
language,  and,  if  incorrect  expressions  are  learned  at  this 
time,  because  they  are  heard  in  the  home,  they  are  likely  to 
be  used  in  after  life.  Every  teacher  knows  the  difficulty 
of  undoing  these  earliest  impressions.  Biologists  tell  us  that 
the  child  develops  in  the  same  manner  as  the  race.  Hence, 
we  find  in  the  young  child  those  traits  characteristic  of  prim- 
itive man,  such  as  fear,  curiosity,  imitation,  selfishness, 
action,  intense  sensations,  destructiveness,  color,  life,  and 
motion.  Other  manifestations  of  this  period  are  love  of 
animals,  desire  for  praise,  emulation,  and  interest  in  con- 
crete wholes.  After  the  destructive  period,  when  the  young 
child  wants  to  tear  and  break  everything  in  his  possession, 
comes  the  constructive  age  when  he  wants  to  make  things. 
Building  blocks,  boxes,  etc.,  will  satisfy  these  wants.  Froe- 
bel's  gifts,  beginning  with  the  colored  balls,  are  excellent 
for  the  home  and  the  first  year  in  school,  as  they  have  been 


SUGGESTIONS   TO  PARENTS  AND   TEACHERS          25 

carefully  worked  out  on  pedagogical  principles  by  that  great 
educator.  This  is  also  the  inquisitive  age  of  the  child,  and 
"why"  and  "what"  are  his  favorite  words.  Little  interest 
in  time  is  shown.  It  is  a  physical  impossibility  for  chil- 
dren to  reflect  on  things  as  those  who  are  older,  because 
their  connective  mental  fiber  has  not  yet  developed.  Hence, 
teaching  is  done  by  precept,  and  the  child  does  what  he  sees 
others  do.  Imitation  is  the  process,  not  reasoning.  It  can 
readily  be  seen  that  this  formative  period  is  the  most  im- 
portant in  the  life  of  the  child.  A  good  primary  teacher 
should  be  obtained  at  all  costs,  but  parents  should  under- 
stand that  they  rob  the  child  of  its  inherent  right  if  they  do 
not  fit  themselves  for  its  proper  guidance  when  it  is  most 
dependent  on  them. 

The  period  from  eight  to  fourteen  is  one  where  the  teacher 
can  do  much  for  the  child,  if  the  parents  have  done  their 
duty.  It  is  the  drill  age  in  school.  The  latter  part  of  this 
period  is  not  one  of  rapid  physical  growth,  and  the  child  can 
stand  plenty  of  mental  work.  There  is  no  danger  of  over- 
work for  the  healthy  child  during  this  time.  Things  that 
require  memory  work  and  much  repetition,  such  as  tables  in 
arithmetic,  correct  expressions  in  language,  spelling,  facts  in 
geography,  and  literary  selections  should  be  emphasized. 
Later  on,  drills  and  reviews  will  be  disliked,  but  not  by  the 
average  student  at  this  time.  Much  interest  is  shown  in  how 
things  are  made,  hence  the  zeal  with  which  manual  training 
and  home  economics  are  taken  up  when  there  is  opportun- 
ity. Interest  is  also  shown  in  structure,  material,  form,  size, 
place,  detail,  adventure,  etc.  Animal  stories,  particularly 
bear  stories  for  the  boys,  will  always  hold  the  attention. 
Remember  that  this  is  the  great  habit  forming  period. 

At  about  fourteen,  a  year  or  two  earlier  usually  for  girls, 
a  profound  change  comes  over  the  individual,  the  period  of 


26  RURAL  EDUCATION 

adolescence,  or  the  beginning  of  maturity.  This  period  is 
usually  accompanied  by  rapid  physical  growth  for  a  few 
years.  It  is,  perhaps,  the  most  trying  time  at  home  or  in 
school  and  requires  much  tact  and  skill  in  management. 
Students  are  changeable  and  must  be  " handled  with  gloves." 
Teachers  should  remember  that  more  or  less  of  these  ap- 
parently abnormal  traits  are  perfectly  natural,  and  make  the 
best  of  the  situation.  There  is  real  danger  of  overwork  at 
this  time,  *  but  it  is  well  for  parents  to  keep  in  mind  that  it 
is  more  likely  to  come  about  from  social  functions  and  keep- 
ing late  hours  than  from  work  in  the  schoolroom.  Boys 
need  the  companionship  of  fathers  and  men  teachers  who 
are  interested  in  their  welfare,  and  girls  should  have  the 
advice  and  sympathy  of  mothers  and  women  teachers. 
Many  educators  believe  it  would  be  better  to  have  separate 
schools  for  boys  and  girls  for  a  few  years  at  this  time,  but 
such  are  probably  impossible,  at  least  as  far  as  most  country 
schools  are  concerned.  Interest  is  shown  in  aesthetics, 
beauty  in  nature,  music,  art,  dramatic  expression,  and 
literature.  Love  of  truth,  sentimentality,  love,  altruism, 
morals  and  religion  are  topics  that  claim  attention.  It  is 
the  age  of  reasoning,  and  the  student  should  be  allowed  to 
develop  his  originality  and  individuality. 

The  teaching  of  religion  is  a  problem  that  should  be 
carefully  considered  and  its  solution  would  not  be  difficult. 
Churches  could  give  religious  instruction  independent  of 
school  and  outside  of  school  hours.  Capable  teachers  might 
be  employed  and  school  credit  given  for  methodical  and 
substantial  work.  In  the  mean  time  moral  instruction 
should  be  given  incidentally  or  from  a  prescribed  course, 
and  selections  from  the  Bible.  Some  of  the  Psalms  and 
Old  Testament  narratives  may  be  taught  for  their  literary 
and  moral  value. 


SUGGESTIONS  TO  PARENTS  AND  TEACHERS    27 

A  topic  discussed  with  a  great  deal  of  interest  at  the 
last  meeting  of  the  National  Education  Association  was  that 
of  sex  hygiene.  There  is  no  doubt  that  one  of  the  gravest 
mistakes  that  parents  have  made  in  the  past  is  the  shroud- 
ing in  mystery  of  all  questions  pertaining  to  sex.  It  is  the 
most  natural  thing  in  the  world  for  the  child  at  an  early 
age  to  want  to  know  about  some  of  the  mysteries  of  life. 
The  child  who  has  been  put  off  with  the  explanation  that 
the  stork  has  visited  the  home  will  soon  realize  that  he  has 
been  deceived,  and  the  parents  have  lost  the  very  thing  so 
much  needed  to  safeguard  his  early  life  against  evil  doing — 
his  confidence.  Any  parent  must  know  that  children  are 
going  to  learn  the  truth  somewhere,  and  yet  most  parents 
have  been  absolutely  indifferent  toward  this  matter.  As  a 
consequence  children  often  discuss  subjects  pertaining  to 
sex,  to  their  own  detriment.  It  is  the  exception  not  to 
find  on  the  outbuildings  of  school  premises  manifestations 
of  unclean  minds.  The  teacher  has  no  more  difficult 
matter  with  which  to  deal,  and  yet  what  assistance  does 
she  get  from  the  homes?  Twentieth  century  enlightenment 
should  speedily  eliminate  the  medieval  notion  that  sex  and 
shame  go  together.  There  is  nothing  more  beautiful  for 
the  young  child  to  hear  than  the  life  history  of  some  of  the 
lower  animals  first,  as  the  frog,  chickens,  kittens,  or  other 
animals  with  which  he  is  familiar,  and  finally  the  child 
itself — told  as  they  are,  and  not  mis-stated  on  account  of 
false  modesty.  It  cannot  be  stated  too  emphatically  that 
no  parents  have  done  their  duty  to  their  children,  who  have 
not  enlightened  them  on  these  truths  of  life  before  they 
have  found  them  out  elsewhere,  so  that  they  still  have 
their  confidence,  which  is  the  key  to  the  situation.  It  will 
then  be  an  easy  matter  for  the  school  to  do  its  part  in  the 
teaching  of  sex  hygiene. 


CHAPTER  III 
HYGIENE  AND  HEALTH 

It  was  stated  in  the  last  chapter  that  good  health  is 
one  of  the  first  requisites  in  education,  because  mental 
growth  is  dependent  upon  physical  development.  The 
teaching  of  systematic  hygiene  is  now  compulsory  in  most 
states,  but  many  teachers  must  surely  stretch  their  con- 
sciences when  they  sign  the  report  that  the  requirement 
has  been  met.  Perhaps  the  reason  such  poor  instruction 
has  been  given  in  the  schools  may  be  found  in  the  fact  that 
there  has  been  so  little  good  material  available  in  texts  or 
supplementary  reading,  and  the  teacher  is  not  qualified 
without  it.  During"  the  last  few  years  better  books  on 
hygiene  have  appeared,  so  that  excuses  no  longer  exist  for 
not  teaching  the  subject. 

Little  anatomy  and  physiology  should  be  taught  in  the 
elementary  schools,  but  there  should  be  a  regular  period  for 
health  talks  and  hygiene.  If  there  is  no  other  time  avail- 
able in  a  crowded  program,  part  of  the  opening  exercises 
or  general  period  may  be  used.  It  is  the  purpose  of  this 
chapter  to  point  out  some  of  the  unhygienic  conditions 
found  in  the  home  and  schoolroom  that  should  receive  the 
attention  of  those  in  charge. 

Statistics  show  that  over  six  hundred  thousand  children 
under  one  year  of  age  die  annually  in  the  United  States, 
largely  from  preventable  diseases.  This  is  an  appalling 
statement,  and  shows  conclusively  the  necessity  of  instruc- 
tion for  those  who  will  be  responsible  for  the  coming  genera- 
tions. The  infant  has  about  the  same  chance  of  living 
through  the  year  as  a  person  eighty  years  old.  This  is 
largely  due  to  improper  feeding  and  the  ignorance  and 

28 


HYGIENE  AND  HEALTH  29 

carelessness  of  mothers  who  could  nurse  their  own  babies, 
but  who  refuse  to  do  so. 

There  is  a  mistaken  notion  that  most  young  persons  are 
subject  to  the  ills  of  childhood,  such  as  measles,  chicken 
pox,  whooping  cough,  scarlet  fever,  etc.,  not  to  mention 
such  common  things  as  toothache  and  earache.  Some 
parents  even  go  so  far  as  to  take  their  children  where  they 
will  be  exposed,  so  they  will  be  sure  to  have  all  the  conta- 
gious diseases.  This  idea  is  absurd.  Nature  never  intended 
children  to  suffer  with  any  of  these  diseases.  They  are 
usually  the  result  of  carelessness  or  lack  of  knowledge  of 
some  of  the  common  principles  of  hygiene.  "An  ounce  of 
prevention  is  worth  a  pound  of  cure"  is  really  beginning  to 
be  believed,  and  we  are  willing  to  pay  the  physician  for 
keeping  us  well  rather  than  for  curing  us  after  we  are  sick. 

Water,  milk  and  flies  are  the  most  common  causes  of  in- 
fection. Nearly  everybody  knows  that  water  will  become 
polluted  if  the  well  is  too  near  the  barnyard  or  outhouses, 
and  yet  very  often  little  attention  is  paid  to  these 
conditions  in  locating  the  well.  Barns  are  seldom  as  san- 
itary and  well  ventilated  as  they  should  be,  but  we  all  know 
that  tuberculosis  is  the  greatest  scourge  the  world  has 
to-day  and  that  it  is  very  often  contracted  by  using  the  milk 
from  infected  animals.  Some  dairymen  even  refuse  to  have 
their  cattle  tested  free  of  charge,  lest  this  disease  may  be 
discovered  and  they  may  have  to  stand  part  of  the  loss  of 
the  animals. 

Many  states  have  now  banished  the  common  drinking 
cup  in  public  places,  and  still  we  find  much  carelessness  in 
the  homes,  and  sometimes  even  in  the  schools.  Inexpen- 
sive fountains  attached  to  cooling  jars  may  now  be  obtained 
and  should  be  in  every  home  and  school  where  there  is  not 
something  better.  So  much  has  been  said  and  written 


30  RURAL  EDUCATION 

about  flies  as  disease  carriers  that  "swat  the  fly"  has  become 
a  household  phrase.  There  is  still,  however,  much  room 
for  improvement  in  sanitary  matters.  Barnyard  manure, 
garbage,  and  slops  thrown  out  in  the  back  yard  are  all 
breeding  places  and  harbors  for  flies.  Outhouses  are  usu- 
ally pestilential  places.  Buildings  may  be  well  screened,  but 
flies  will  get  in,  if  allowed  to  breed  on  the  premises. 

In  most  homes  and  in  some  schoolhouses  there  is  no 
system  of  ventilation.  Great  care  must,  therefore,  be  taken 
or  the  air  will  become  impure.  A  very  simple  test  for  foul 
air  is  to  make  a  little  lime  water  by  pouring  water  over 
some  unslacked  lime  and  allowing  it  to  stand  until  the 
liquid  is  clear.  Put  a  few  spoonfuls  of  this  liquid  into  a 
bottle  or  fruit  jar  and  allow  it  to  stand  in  the  room  where 
the  air  is  to  be  tested.  It  should  stand  for  two  or  three 
hours,  or,  if  preferable,  over  night.  Then  shake  it  up.  If 
a  white  precipitate  is  formed,  the  air  contains  too  much 
carbon  dioxide  and  is  unfit  to  breathe.  If  the  jar  is  taken 
from  one  room  to  another,  it  should  be  filled  with  water, 
emptied,  and  allowed  to  fill  with  air  from  the  room  in  which 
the  air  is  to  be  tested.  Otherwise,  the  air  in  the  jar,  carried 
from  the  other  room,  would  be  used. 

Sleeping  in  rooms  with  the  windows  open  soon  becomes 
a  habit,  and  should  be  the  rule  throughout  the  year.  There 
is  a  popular  belief  that  "night  air"  is  not  good  to  breathe. 
Some  one  has  said  that  the  only  night  air  not  fit  to  breathe 
is  last  night's.  Open  up  the  windows  not  so  much  to  let 
fresh  air  in  as  to  let  the  foul  air  out.  Young  children  should 
be  given  a  nap  in  the  open  during  the  whole  year.  Even 
in  the  coldest  weather  there  is  nothing  to  fear,  if  they  are 
well  covered.  Children  have  come  in  from  a  sleep  in  twenty 
degrees  below  zero  weather,  warm,  rosy  cheeked,  and  re- 
freshed from  the  pure  air.  More  importance  must  be 


HYGIENE  AND  HEALTH  31 

attached  to  fresh  air  in  cold  weather,  because  the  house  is 
generally  poorly  ventilated.  Colds  are  not  caught  in  pure 
air,  no  matter  how  cold  it  is.  A  cold,  misnamed  and  more 
logically  called  a  "stuffaire,"  is  caused  by  bacteria  that 
thrive  in  foul,  stuffy  air.  Because  colds  are  so  common, 
they  are  looked  upon  lightly  and  often  neglected.  We 
forget  that  they  may  pave  the  way  for  pneumonia,  tuber- 
culosis and  other  serious  diseases.  One  of  our  leading 
authorities  on  hygiene  believes  the  time  will  come  when 
persons  with  colds  will  be  segregated  or  quarantined  the 
same  as  those  afflicted  with  other  highly  infectious  diseases. 

The  care  of  the  teeth  has  been  sadly  neglected  in  both 
home  and  school.  Probably  seventy-five  per  cent  of  the 
children  in  the  grades  suffer  from  an  unhygienic  condition 
of  the  mouth,  and  yet  many  of  them  receive  little  or  no 
attention.  Dr.  Ernest  Hoag,  an  authority  on  school  hy- 
giene, has  determined  that  about  forty  per  cent  of  the 
children  in  the  grades  have  from  five  to  ten  decayed  teeth. 
The  effects  of  such  a  condition  upon  both  physical  and 
mental  development  are  beginning  to  be  realized.  If  the 
schools  taught  nothing  but  mouth  hygiene,  and  taught  it 
effectively,  it  would  be  much  better  than  the  present  phys- 
iology and  the  half-hearted  way  in  which  it  is  taught  in 
most  schools.  If  the  baby  teeth  are  allowed  to  decay,  the 
mouth  will  become  diseased  and  the  permanent  teeth  can- 
not be  good.  The  child  should  be  taught  to  use  a  brush 
early  so  that  the  habit  will  be  formed  before  the  second 
teeth  appear.  Military  authorities  and  insurance  companies 
recognize  the  value  of  good  teeth. 

Dr.  Harvey  W.  Wiley  says,  "Unhealthy  mouths,  de- 
caying teeth,  and  neglected  gums  are  doing  far  greater 
damage  to  the  people  of  this  country  than  smallpox  " 


32  RURAL  EDUCATION 

Many  homes  and  almost  all  schoolrooms  have  children 
affected  with  adenoids,  but  until  recently  little  attention 
has  been  given  to  them.  Even  where  the  teacher  has  been 
wide  awake  and  called  the  attention  of  parents  to  some  of 
these  conditions,  they  have  been  indifferent  or  even  offended. 
The  symptoms  of  adenoids  are  so  plain,  the  removal  so 
simple,  and  the  effects  upon  the  child  so  marked,  that  those 
who  are  responsible  for  its  welfare  cannot  afford  to  be  neg- 
ligent. Mouth  breathing,  sore  throat,  earache,  and  prom- 
inent front  teeth  are  pretty  sure  .signs.  These  symptoms 
are  caused  by  the  soft,  spongy  growth  in  the  back  of  the 
throat,  that  obstructs  the  air  as  it  passes  through  the  nose 
to  the  lungs.  Naturally,  the  child  will  use  the  only  other 
avenue  he  has  to  get  air,  and  he  becomes  a  "mouth  breather." 
In  some  cases  the  throat  becomes  so  clogged  that  even 
mouth  breathing  does  not  furnish  enough  oxygen,  as  many 
aenemic  children  show.  The  warm,  spongy  substances  are 
excellent  incubators  for  disease  germs.  Thus  the  throat 
often  becomes  sore,  and  the  tonsils  diseased.  Because  the 
mouth  is  open  so  much,  the  roof  grows  high  and  narrow, 
and  the  front  teeth,  crowded,  become  crooked  and  elongated. 
I  have  seen  many  school  children,  having  had  adenoids  and 
tonsils  removed  on  Saturday,  back  in  school  Monday  morn- 
ing. There  was  a  marked  change  in  their  attitude  toward 
school  work  within  a  few  weeks.  Sometimes  this  change  is 
not  so  apparent  at  first,  but  it  is  always  more  or  less  per- 
manent. In  advanced  cases  the  physical  deformities  may 
never  entirely  disappear.  Most  of  the  restlessness  in  home 
and  school  can  be  traced  to  physical  defects  discussed  in 
this  chapter.  That  is  why  parents  and  teachers  should  not 
only  be  familiar  with  the  facts,  but  enthusiastic  enough  to 
act  after  these  are  known.  Many  valuable  books  on  hygiene 
are  now  available  for  those  who  are  interested  in  them. 


HYGIENE  AND  HEALTH  33 

One  in  every  four  or  five  children  in  school  is  affected 
with  some  kind  of  eye  trouble.  Sometimes  serious  cases 
go  unnoticed  by  parent  and  teacher.  A  case  in  my  own 
experience  was  a  little  girl  sitting  in  the  back  of  a  school- 
room, whom  I  noticed  straining  her  eyes  in  attempting  to 
read  something  on  the  blackboard.  Superficial  examination 
with  the  vision  chart  showed  that  she  was  practically  blind 
in  one  eye,  and  the  vision  in  the  other  was  very  defective. 
The  teacher  had  worked  with  the  child  for  months,  and  even 
the  parent  did  not  know  there  was  anything  wrong  with  her 
eyesight.  Still  worse :  nothing  was  done  after  the  facts  were 
known.  The  penalty  will  probably  be  blindness  for  life. 

Another  case  was  that  of  a  boy  who  became  so  near- 
sighted that  he  had  to  hold  his  book  within  two  or  three 
inches  of  his  eyes  in  order  to  read.  Finally,  specialists  were 
consulted,  and  two  or  three  operations  were  performed,  but 
with  only  temporary  relief.  He  was  doomed  to  total  blind- 
ness. He  had  been  neglected  so  long  that  cataracts  had 
formed  in  both  eyes.  It  was  with  difficulty  that  he  was 
kept  from  reading  library  books,  even  in  this  serious  state. 
He  was  of  Polish  descent  and,  with  his  usual  stoicism  re- 
marked to  me  one  day  that  he  must  finish  "Thaddeus  of 
Warsaw"  while  he  could  see.  Such  instances  are  all  the  more 
pathetic  when  we  remember  that  in  most  cases  the  defects 
could  be  remedied,  if  treated  in  time.  The  most  common 
eye  defects  found  in  the  schoolroom  are  nearsightedness, 
farsightedness,  and  astigmatism.  The  first  two  are  caused 
by  defects  in  the  shape  of  the  eyeball.  When  the  eyeball  is 
too  long,  the  image  is  formed  in  front  of  the  retina  and  the 
person  is  said  to  be  nearsighted.  When  it  is  too  short,  the 
image  is  formed  back  of  the  retina,  and  farsightedness  is  the 
result.  Astigmatism  is  caused  by  a  defective  cornea  or  lens 
of  the  eye.  While  these  defects  can  be  determined  in  a 


34  RURAL  EDUCATION 

general  way  by  the  teacher,  a  specialist  should  always  be 
consulted.  These  troubles  can  be  remedied  by  using  glasses 
properly  adjusted.  Most  of  the  heada'ches  of  the  school- 
room are  caused  by  eye  troubles. 

Inflamed,  sore  eyes  are  caused  by  infection,  which,  unless 
they  receive  proper  care,  may  cause  serious  trouble.  In 
many  homes  the  common  towel  is  as  prevalent  as  the  com- 
mon dipper  or  drinking  cup.  It  is  usually  the  cause  of  the 
spreading  of  sore  eyes  to  others.  As  a  preventive  the  paper 
towel  can  be  used  cheaply  and  effectively. 

Earache  is  common  among  children  and  is  often  mis- 
understood. Get  rid  of  defective  teeth,  adenoids  and  other 
throat  trouble,  and  the  earache  will  take  care  of  itself.  It 
is  nearly  always  caused  by  infection  from  these  sources. 
Whenever  the  ear  "runs,"  there  is  partial  deafness,  because 
the  drum  is  punctured  and  should  be  cared  for  at  once. 
When  the  causes  of  earache  are  removed,  nature  will 
usually  heal  the  drum  of  a  young  child,  if  the  rupture  is  not 
too  large.  Earache  is  an  inflammation,  and  while  hot  appli- 
cations are  often  used  to  relieve  it  temporarily,  they  some- 
times make  it  worse.  Cold  water  put  in  the  ear,  or  cold 
applications,  will  often  give  the  desired  relief.  Drugs  are 
dangerous  and  should  never  be  used  in  the  ears,  unless  pre- 
scribed by  a  physician. 

The  cigarette  habit  surely  should  be  mentioned  in  a 
discussion  of  hygiene  and  health.  This  is  a  most  serious 
problem.  While  alcoholism  is  decreasing  each  year  in  the 
nation,  it  would  seem  that  the  tobacco  habit  is  increasing. 
The  effects  of  tobacco  are  probably  just  as  injurious  to  the 
growing  child  as  alcohol,  and  any  experienced  teacher  can 
pick  out  the  cigarette  "fiend,"  without  even  looking  at  his 
yellow  finger  hails,  by  his  dulled  sensibilities  and  lack  of 
interest  in  school  work.  When  parents  and  adults  in  general 


HYGIENE  AND  HEALTH  35 

fully  realize  the  economic  loss  to  society,  not  to  mention  the 
moral  side  of  the  question,  public  sentiment  will  probably 
assist  teachers  in  enforcing  laws  intended  to  protect  minors. 
In  the  meantime,  the  teacher  can  hardly  do  more  than  to 
show  the  evils  as  effectively  as  possible,  and  enlist  the 
aid  of  parents.  Of  course  those  teachers  and  schoolmen 
who  are  themselves  users  of  the  weed,  even  though  it  be  only 
to  the  extent  of  the  "social  cigar,"  will  find  the  situation 
somewhat  embarrassing  and  ridiculous. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  chapter  it  was  stated  that 
improper  food  was  the  cause  of  a  large  percentage  of  the 
mortality  among  children.  Those  who  survive  are  often 
weakened  by  uninformed  mothers.  Investigations  con- 
ducted in  our  own  schools  determined  that  over  ninety  per 
cent  of  the  students  above  the  first  grade  drank  coffee  once 
or  more  daily.  About  half  in  the  first  grade  used  it  as  often. 
One  authority  says  that  a  cup  of  tea  or  coffee  is  just  as  injuri- 
ous to  the  young  boy  or  girl  as  a  glass  of  beer.  How  many 
parents  there  are  who  would  not  think  of  letting  their 
children  drink  beer,  and  yet  they  give  them  other  injurious 
drinks.  A  child  in  one  of  the  intermediate  grades  became 
so  nervous  that  he  had  to  withdraw  from  school.  He  could 
neither  sit  still  nor  hold  a  pencil  without  shaking  it,  and  was 
in  a  pitiable  condition.  This  same  child  usually  drank 
coffee  three  times  a  day,  and  ate  all  manner  of  unfit  things 
at  meal  times  and  between  meals.  The  cause  of  his  nerv- 
ousness was  not  hard  to  find,  but  it  did  not  seem  to  bother 
his  parents. 

It  was  also  found  that  many  children  were  getting  any- 
thing but  balanced  diets.  Some  ate  little  or  no  breakfast 
besides  the  coffee.  Many  had  eaten  only  starchy  foods, 
and  where  they  were  repeated  at  noon,  and  sometimes  at 
night,  there  were  sour  stomachs.  Sweets  and  pickles  were 


36  RURAL  EDUCATION 

very  often  eaten  too  lavishly,  while  bread  and  milk  and  other 
old  fashioned,  but  wholesome,  dishes  for  children  were  con- 
spicuous by  their  absence.  Verily  the  present  generation 
of  mothers  needs  instruction  in  sanitation  and  dietetics. 
The  teacher  must  help. 

For  those  who  have  to  carry  lunches  to  school  it  is  all 
the  more  necessary  that  the  other  two  meals  should  be  suit- 
able to  their  needs.  Some  of  these  lunches  were  found  to 
be  entirely  inadequate.  Some  consisted  of  only  bread  and 
syrup,  not  even  butter  on  the  bread.  And  this  was  not  due 
to  poverty  in  the  home,  but  to  lack  of  j  udgment.  It  would 
seem  that  the  warm  dishes  prepared  by  the  students  under 
the  direction  of  the  teacher  would  meet  universal  approval, 
as  nearly  all  country  children  have  to  eat  cold  lunches,  but 
there  is  often  objection.  Teachers  have  had  to  be  very 
tactful  in  serving  them.  Whether  the  opposition  comes 
from  a  supposed  reflection  on  the  cooking  at  home  or  from 
an  imagined  extra  cost,  or  for  some  other  reason,  has  not  yet 
been  determined.  As  soon  as  the  benefits  are  more  fully 
realized,  and  teachers  are  better  prepared  to  undertake  this 
work,  the  hot  lunch  will  undoubtedly  become  an  established 
custom.  It  will  be  discussed  under  another  chapter. 

The  reader  should  not  become  pessimistic  because  the 
conditions  enumerated  here  are  likely  to  confront  the  teacher. 
They  may  be  bad  enough  yet,  but  they  are  growing  better. 
The  average  community  is  slow  to  appreciate  the  necessity 
of  medical  inspection,  but  as  soon  as  public  sentiment  will 
permit,  it  will  be  given  in  all  the  public  schools.  In  the 
meantime,  what  can  the  teacher  do  to  help?  Some  things 
have  already  been  suggested. 

As  soon  as  possible  after  the  opening  of  school,  the 
teacher  should  test  the  eyes  of  all  the  students.  She  may 
do  so  by  using  a  vision  chart  usually  furnished  free  by  the 


HYGIENE  AND  HEALTH  37 

state  department  of  education.  Directions  are  given  on 
the  chart  and  should  be  carefully  followed.  Test  each  eye 
separately,  and  notify  the  parents  of  any  cases  of  defective 
vision.  Place  the  students  so  affected  so  that  they  will  be 
at  the  best  advantage  possible  as  to  light,  nearness  to  black- 
board, etc.  The  ears  may  be  tested  by  blindfolding  the 
pupils  and  letting  them  listen  to  the  ticking  of  a  watch,  first 
with  one  ear  and  then  with  the  other.  An  ordinary  watch 
should  be  heard  at  least  three  feet.  Let  the  pupil  answer 
when  he  hears  or  when  he  does  not  hear,  and  be  sure  that 
he  does  not  imagine  his  answer.  The  teeth  can  easily  be 
examined  without  offense  to  pupil  or  parent.  Start  a  tooth 
brush  club  in  the  school  and  keep  a  record,  giving  each  one 
who  brushed  his  teeth  before  starting  to  school  a  star  or 
some  other  recognition.  The  effect  is  sometimes  marvelous. 
Some  schools  also  have  a  bedtime  club,  and  those  who  go  to 
bed  before  a  certain  hour  get  a  star.  Parents  have  told  me 
how  very  much  interested  their  children  have  become, 
stating  that  those  who  had  not  cared  how  late  they  stayed 
up  would  complain  that  they  would  lose  the  star,  if  they 
were  not  in  bed  on  time. 

Teachers  should  become  familiar  with  the  symptoms  of 
the  common  infectious  and  contagious  diseases,  so  that 
suspicious  cases  may  be  isolated  before  the  whole  room 
becomes  exposed.  It  is  now  pretty  generally  agreed  that  it 
is  very  poor  policy  to  close  the  school  in  case  of  an  outbreak 
of  disease,  as  the  medical  authorities  can  control  it  much 
better  with  children  in  school  than  scattered  all  over  the 
community.  Children  do  not  stay  at  home  when  the  school 
is  closed.  They  are  likely  to  mingle  with  their  neighbors 
more  than  when  going  to  school. 

Finally,  it  should  go  without  saying  that  the  teacher 
herself  should  put  all  her  theories  of  hygiene  into  practice. 


CHAPTER  IV 
PLAY  AND  THE  SCHOOL  PLAYGROUND 

Play  should  be  of  much  more  interest  to  parents  and 
teachers  than  it  is  at  present.  During  the  last  fifteen  years 
leading  educators  in  many  countries  have  been  making  a 
scientific  study  of  play  and  its  relation  to  the  development 
of  the  child.  Long  ago  Spencer,  Hegel,  Pestalozzi  and 
Froebel  had  pointed  out  the  value  of  play  in  education. 
Much  of  this  early  discussion  was  theoretical,  however,  and 
only  recently  its  true  value  is  being  recognized.  Even  yet 
systematized  play  under  trained  supervisors  is  confined 
almost  entirely  to  large  centers,  and  is  financed  by  the 
municipalities,  the  Young  Men's  Christian  Association  and 
other  organizations. 

Play  has  been  regarded  as  merely  something  to  occupy 
the  spare  time  of  small  children,  but  entirely  unnecessary, 
or  even  out  of  place,  for  children  old  enough  to  work.  That 
thousands  of  American  children  have  been  cheated  out  of 


Figure  1.     Maypole  dance,  Lewiston,  Minn. 
38 


PLAY  AND  SCHOOL  PLAYGROUND         39 

their  birthrights,  and  became  prematurely  old,  is  evident 
from  the  existing  child  labor  laws.  They  are  of  interest  to 
the  sociologist.  The  educator  sees  a  deeper  meaning  in 
play.  Play  has  long  been  recognized  as  a  necessary  activity 
for  the  surplus  energy  stored  up  in  the  nerve  cells. 
G.  Stanley  Hall,  Dr.  Gullick,  and  others  who  have  made  a 
serious  study  of  this  subject,  find  in  play  a  manifestation  of 
those  traits  of  the  human  race  that  have  been  handed  down 
from  generation  to  generation.  Hence,  the  absolute  neces- 
sity of  play  in  the  proper  development  of  the  child.  John- 
son, in  his  admirable  work,  "Education  by  Plays  and 
Games,"  says:  "I  would  not  claim  too  much,  but  I  cannot 
believe  that  there  can  be  any  education  in  the  true  sense  of 
the  word  that  does  not  deeply  involve  the  emotions  and  the 
will,  that  does  not  take  root  in  the  inheritances  that  have 
come  down  from  the  motor  habits  of  the  race;  and  as  these 
motor  habits,  endeavoring  to  persist  in  the  present,  are  in- 
volved in  play,  we  find  there  the  surest  and  nearest  approach 
to  a  true  education  of  the  child.  Just  as  the  physician  in 
his  search  for  a  cure  for  consumption  has  circumscribed  the 
earth  and  finally  come  back  to  the  thing  in  all  the  world 
the  simplest  and  nearest,  the  first  demand  of  the  child  upon 
entrance  into  the  world, — fresh  air, — so  we  in  our  search 
for  the  best  means  of  educating  our  children  are  coming 
back  to  that  which  was  the  first  expression  of  his  awakening 
soul,  his  play." 

That  play  is  natural  and  instinctive  is  evident  to  any- 
one who  has  observed  children.  As  soon  as  the  child  is  old 
enough  to  notice  its  environment,  at  the  age  of  a  few  months, 
play  begins.  At  first  it  may  be  the  fingers  that  hold  the 
attention.  A  little  later  a  rattle  and  colored  ball  are  ap- 
preciated. In  the  second  chapter  we  considered  three 
periods  of  the  development  of  the  child.  Play  may  be 


40 


RURAL  EDUCATION 


Figure  2.      Supervision  on  the  playground. 


classified  for  those 
same  periods,  and 
games  selected  that 
will  be  suitable  for 
each.  There  are 
many  games  suitable 
for  both  sexes.  Oth- 
ers should  be  select- 
ed, however,  that 
will  be  especially 
adapted  to  each  sex. 
The  season  of  the 
year  should  be  kept 
in  mind  in  planning 
games  for  children. 
That  systematic  play  should  be  a  part  of  early  home 
training  is  certain.  The  ancient  Greeks  gave  this  training 
and  developed  a  race  that  have  been  unsurpassed  in  physical 
perfection  and  beauty.  It  would  be  best  if  every  home  had 
a  room  for  children's  play,  but  this  provision  is  probably 
impossible  in  many  homes.  The  next  best  plan  is  to  have 
a  tent  or  play  house  in  the  yard.  The  materials  may  be 
very  simple  and  homemade.  Every  yard  should  have  a 
sand  bin  about  three  by  six  feet  and  filled  with  clean  sand 
from  the  lake  shore.  If  lake  sand  is  not  obtainable,  sub- 
soil will  do,  but  the  gravel  should  be  screened  out.  A  sand 
pile  containing  a  load  or  two  of  sand  should  be  available. 
Some  tin  cans  or  pails  and  large  tin  spoons  for  shovels  will 
be  all  that  is  needed.  The  educational  value  of  the  sand 
pile  and  bin  for  young  children  can  hardly  be  overestimated. 
Other  simple  apparatus  for  the  home  yard  is  a  "teeter," 
or  see-saw,  a  low  swing,  short  homemade  slide,  indoor  base- 
ball, croquet,  horseshoes  or  quoits,  and  tether-ball.  It 


PLAY  AND  SCHOOL  PLAYGROUND 


41 


should  go  without  saying  that  the  yard  and  lawn  should  be 
made  as  attractive  as  possible.  A  hedge  instead  of  a  fence, 
green  lawn,  ornamental  shrubbery,  and  some  flowers,  with 
very  little  expense,  and  some  labor  that  will  be  profitable  for 
every  member  of  the  family,  will  bring  the  desired  results. 
The  reason  these  decorations  are  not  found  in  almost  every 
home  yard  is  certainly  not  due  to  expense.  It  is  usually 
lack  of  interest.  Parents  who  complain  that  the  children 
always  want  to  play  at  the  neighbors  should  consider  ways 
and  means  for  making  their  own  yards  more  attractive. 


Figure  3.     A  modern  "teeter." 

Children  should  be  encouraged  to  have  pets,  especially 
poultry  or  some  other  profitable  animals.  They  will  also 
take  great  interest  in  a  vegetable  and  flower  gardens,  if  they 
are  given  the  seeds  and  the  proceeds  from  them.  Parents  can 
well  afford  to  pay  children  the  market  price  for  poultry  and 
vegetables  to  get  them  interested  in  something  practical, 
and  in  simple  business  transactions.  This  work  is  so  closely 
connected  with  play  that  it  is  proper  to  discuss  it  here. 
There  is  so  much  of  the  play  element  in  work  and  the  work 
element  in  play  for  young  people  that  it  is  sometimes  dif- 
ficult to  distinguish  between  work  and  play. 


42 


RURAL  EDUCATION 


Figure  4.     Work  and  play. 

Play  is  necessary  in  the  home  and  it  is  equally  important 
at  school.  Not  only  on  the  grounds,  but  in  the  primary 
division  at  least,  it  should  be  utilized  to  a  much  greater  ex- 
tent in  the  actual  classroom  work.  Some  of  the  dreadful 
ideas  young  children  get  of  school  before  they  become  ac- 
customed to  the  work  of  the  school  room  would  not  material- 
ize, if  school  work  were  made  more  natural  for  them. 

I  contemplated  my  first  day  in  school  with  terror,  as  I 
had  been  threatened  with  having  my  ears  amputated.  I 
was,  therefore,  forced  to  school  screaming.  When  the 
"master"  appeared,  I  told  him  with  emphasis  that  I  would 
not  go  inside.  He  merely  smiled,  but  somehow  that  smile 
caught  me  unawares,  and  I  was  soon  inside.  At  recess, 
however,  I  took  a  position  with  my  back  to  the  school- 
house,  so  that  I  could  guard  my  ears.  This  teacher,  of 
whom  I  felt  in  terror,  to  my  utter  astonishment,  handed 
me  a  whistle,  and,  taking  one  himself,  spent  a  part  of  the 
recess  in  showing  me  how  to  use  it.  There  was  not  a  day 
from  that  morning  till  now  that  I  would  not  have  fought 
for  that  teacher,  if  necessary. 


PLAY  AND  SCHOOL  PLAYGROUND         43 

His  successor  was  fully  as  tactful.  Recess  and  noontime 
would  find  him  on  the  play  grounds  leading  the  games. 
There  were  action  games  for  the  little  folks,  in  which  they 
would  get  acquainted  and  feel  free  and  natural;  crack  the 
whip,  duck-on-the-rock  and  similar  games  for  the  next 
group;  while  two-old-cat,  cricket,  and  association  football, 
where  all  could  take  part,  were  the  delights  of  the  oldest 
students.  These  teachers  had  not  only  the  respect  of  that 
large  school  of  sixty  pupils,  but  their  admiration  and  love. 
I  am  sure  the  playground  activities  had  a  great  deal  to  do 
with  their  success.  As  soon  as  the  bell  rang,  play  ceased 
and  work  began.  And  how  we  did  work! 

For  some  reason  the  average  teacher  does  not  like  to 
mingle  with  the  students  on  the  playground.  Some  teachers 
seem  afraid  they  will  lose  their  dignity;  others  fear  they  will 
lose  the  control  of  their  pupils;  while  others  are  not  in 
sympathy  with  the  games.  The  first  two  classes  are  surely 
mistaken,  as  experience  would  soon  teach  them,  if  they  are  of 
the  right  kind,  and  the  last  class  should  never  enter  the  school- 
room as  teachers.  I  believe  most  heartily  in  supervised  play, 
not  the  rigid,  reserved  kind  that  takes  away  all  spontaneity; 
but  the  resourceful,  sympathetic  supervision  that  makes 
the  recess  worth  while,  so  that  the  child  wants  to  play  be- 
cause the  teacher  is  interested  enough  to  play  with  him. 
Observation  shows  that  where  interest  Jags  in  the  playground 
sports,  the  fault  is  almost  entirely  with  the  teacher.  She 
should  realize  that  the  teacher  is  responsible  for  the  children 
from  the  time  they  leave  home  in  the  morning  until  they 
return  at  night,  and  that  more  mischief  is  often  done  in  fifteen 
minutes  recess,  that  might  have  been  avoided  if  she  had 
been  "on  the  job"  directing  their  play,  than  she  can  undo 
inside  the  school  in  a  week.  It  is  the  duty  of  every  teacher 
to  plan  her  playground  program  as  carefully  as  any  other 


44  RURAL  EDUCATION 

part  of  the  work  for  the  day.  Better  by  far  have  no  recess 
than  to  turn  the  students  out  to  do  just  as  they  please. 
Those  who  have  not  tried  it,  should  investigate  the  recess 
and  noon  periods  and  find  out  what  is  being  done  on  the 
grounds.  If  the  reader  is  not  satisfied  with  the  result  ob- 
tained at  recess  and  noon,  he  should  get  one  or  more  of  the 
books  mentioned  in  the  reference  list  and  become  enthusi- 
astic over  the  playground. 

Curtis,  in  discussing  organized  play  in  the  school  yard 
says:  "Some  teachers  seem  to  feel  that  it  is  beneath  their 
dignity  to  play  with  the  children,  and  one  often  hears  the 
old  saw,  'Familiarity  breeds  contempt/  Whenever  I  hear 
this  quotation  in  this  connection,  I  always  feel  like  complet- 
ing it  by  its  implied  condition.  Familiarity  reveals  you  as 
you  really  are.  It  leads  to  contempt,  if  you  are  contemptible. 
If  familiarity  makes  you  contemptible  to  your  father  and 
mother,  your  brothers  and  sisters,  it  will  make  you  contempt- 
ible to  the  children  as  well;  but  if,  on  the  other  hand,  you  wish 
to  be  a  real  friend  to  the  children  and  have  a  lasting  influence 
over  them,  there  is  no  other  way.  The  person  who  sits 
upon  a  platform  of  assumed  dignity  and  answers  our  ques- 
tions by  Ves'  or  <n°'  and  gives  us  sage  advice  about  our 
conduct  has  very  little  influence  upon  us  either  in  school  or 
outside  of  it.  Everywhere  the  testimony  of  the  teachers 
who  are  sympathetically  playing  with  their  children  is  that 
this  play  solves  the  question  of  discipline." 

What  has  been  said  will  suffice  to  show  that  play  is  as 
essential  in  the  country  as  in  the  city  schools.  It  should 
not  stop  at  the  playgrounds  of  the  school.  A  quarter  holi- 
day in  which  the  entire  school  is  taken  on  an  excursion  should 
be  a  frequent  thing  especially  in  the  spring  and  fall.  This 
recreation  will  not  merely  be  an  outing.  There  are  so  many 
topics  in  nature  study  that  can  best  be  studied  at  such  times, 


PLAY  AND  SCHOOL  PLAYGROUND         45 

that  the  teacher  will  not  find  it  difficult  for  the  students  to 
get  both  profit  and  pleasure  out  of  such  trips,  if  she  is  awake 
to  the  opportunity.  Many  schools  now  plan  something 
special  for  Halloween,  Thanksgiving  day,  Christmas  time, 
and  other  occasions.  Children  who  plan  and  take  part  in 
a  social  function  on  Halloween  will  not  usually  participate 
in  the  foolish  pranks  sometimes  played  at  this  time. 

Some  teachers  feel  that  it  is  impossible  to  do  anything 
without  expensive  apparatus,  such  as  that  found  in  the  city 
grounds.  This  is  a  mistaken  notion.  Most  of  the  play- 
ground materials  for  the  rural  schools  can  be  homemade. 
Curtis,  in  his  book  on  "Play  and  Recreation"  gives  the  ex- 
perience of  forty-seven  rural  schools  in  Winnebago  county, 
Illinois,  that  had  no  money  for  this  purpose;  so  they  held 
socials  that  raised  the  sum  of  $1,638.27  or  about  $35  a  school. 
Half  of  this  amount  would  make  a  good  start  for  any  school, 
with  the  enthusiastic  aid  of  pupils  and  teachers.  The  follow- 
ing apparatus  and  games,  not  all  necessary  for  any  one 
ground,  will  be  suggestive. 

The  sand  bin  is  one  of  the  first  things  that  should  be 
constructed.  If  more  than  one  is  made,  about  four  by  six 
feet  would  be  a  convenient  size.  It  should  be  about  twice 
this  size,  if  there  is  but  one.  Even  if  the  district  is  willing 
to  furnish  it,  this  is  a  piece  of  apparatus  that  the  children 
themselves  should  make.  A  few  ten  or  twelve  inch  planks 
and  some  nails  or  stakes  will  be  all  that  is  necessary.  A  seat 
around  the  edge  will  make  it  better,  but  is  not  imperative. 
Some  of  the  older  students  will  usually  be  willing  to  haul  the 
sand  after  school  or  on  a  Saturday.  All  will  not  need  to  cost 
more  than  the  price  of  the  planks,  and  possibly  four  persons 
can  bring  one  each  for  the  four  sides.  The  bins  should  be 
made  in  some  shady  corner  of  the  grounds  not  used  by  the 
larger  students.  They  need  no  bottom,  and  will  soon 
dry  out  after  rain. 


46  RURAL  EDUCATION 

Now  some  will  actually  wonder  what  good  a  sand  bin  is, 
and  likely  most  of  the  parents  will  be  among  the  first.  But 
any  good  primary  teacher  will  know  its  value.  Sand  bins 
are  for  the  little  folk  of  the  school.  The  sand  table  of  the 
lower  grade  rooms  will  indicate  some  of  the  uses.  Here  the 
history  stories  will  be  reproduced,  geographical  formations 
worked  out,  and  the  imagination  developed;  but,  above  all, 
the  children  will  be  playing,  and  in  their  natural  element. 

A  smooth,  straight  track  for  running  races  should  be  made 
along  one  side  of  the  school  grounds.  It  should  be  as  long  as 
possible  up  to  one  hundred  feet,  and  conveniently  marked 
off  for  shorter  races.  A  jumping  pit  can  easily  be  made  at 
one  end  by  digging  out  the  earth  and  putting  in  a  few  inches 
of  sand  or  sawdust  mixed  with  earth,  to  deaden  the  jar. 
Running  and  jumping  are  healthful  exercises  and  children  of 
all  ages  enjoy  them. 

Swings  may  be  constructed  easily,  if  desirable,  but  it 
is  hardly  possible  to  have  enough  for  all  who  would  use 
them,  and  they  are  better  for  the  home  yard  than  for  the 
school  playground.  They  should  be  low,  safely  constructed, 
and  out  of  the  way  of  children  playing  other  games. 

A  giant  stride  is  better  than  the  swing,  as  more  can  play 
and  there  is  little  danger  of  one's  getting  hurt.  Even 
this  can  be  homemade.  For  the  rotary  top  a  small 
wagon  wheel  is  placed  at  the  top  of  a  stout  pole  about 
fifteen  feet  high.  A  strong  rope  is  attached  for  each  child 
and  should  hang  so  low  as  to  be  easily  reached.  When 
all  are  ready  to  start,  the  rotary  motion  is  begun  by  the 
children's  hanging  on  to  the  ropes  and  running  around  the 
pole.  Centrifugal  force  will  soon  take  them  off  their  feet 
part  of  the  time,  and  they  can  either  swing  out  or  jump 
along  as  they  desire.  The  giant  stride  is  always  a  popular 
piece  of  playground  apparatus. 


PLAY  AND  SCHOOL  PLAYGROUND         47 

Tether-ball  is  one  of  the  best  games  that  can  be  played 
on  the  school  ground,  but  it  will  accommodate  only  two 
persons,  or  at  most  four  at  one  time.  Two  or  three  poles 
could  be  erected,  about  three  inches  in  diameter  and  twelve 
or  fourteen  feet  high.  A  mark  of  some  kind  is  made  about 
six  feet  up  on  the  pole  around  which  the  ball  is  to  be  wound, 
one  side  trying  to  wind  it  to  the  right  and  the  other  side  to 
the  left.  A  circle  six  feet  in  diameter  is  drawn  around  the 
pole,  and  a  straight  line  through  the  pole  divides  the  players. 
A  tennis  ball  inside  a  netting  and  attached  to  a  string  is 
fastened  to  the  top  of  the  pole.  The  server  takes  the  ball 
in  one  hand  and  strikes  it  with  a  racket,  (a  smooth,  flat 
board  will  do)  and  tries  to  wind  it  around  the  pole.  The 
side,  or  person,  winding  it  up  first  wins  the  game.  Tether- 
ball  is  excellent  exercise,  and  is  interesting,  if  played  right. 

Volley  ball  should  be  a  popular  game,  as  the  entire  school 
can  take  part.  Six  or  eight  on  a  side  is  the  usual  number, 
however.  The  game  is  played  with  a  large  inflated  ball 
similar  to  a  basket  ball.  The  ball  is  served  by  one  of  the 
players  from  the  back  line  of  the  court,  and  an  attempt  is 
made  to  bat  (with  the  hand)  the  ball  over  the  net  into  the 
opponent's  court  before  he  can  strike  it  back  with  his  hand. 
The  ball  is  batted  back  and  forth  until  one  side  misses  and 
it  touches  the  ground.  Those  who  fail  to  return  it  yield 
a  point  to  the  other  side.  The  player  missing  the  ball  is 
the  next  server.  Two  twenty-minute  halves  may  be  played 
as  in  basket  ball,  and  the  side  scoring  the  largest  number 
of  points  wins  the  game.  Volley  ball  is  a  new  game,  but 
is  very  popular,  not  only  in  the  school,  but  with  business 
men  in  their  clubs.  Physical  directors  recognize  this  game 
as  one  of  the  very  best  that  serve  the  purpose  of  corrective 
gymnastics.  It  can  be  played  indoors  or  out  in  the  open, 
requires  little  space,  and  very  inexpensive  equipment.  When 


48  RURAL  EDUCATION 

the  game  can  be  played  out  of  doors,  the  courts  should  be 
twenty-five  by  fifty  feet  each.  The  net  should  be  at  least 
seven  feet  high  and  attached  to  posts  set  two  feet  outside 
the  side  lines. 

Indoor  baseball  is  appropriate  for  any  home  or  school 
playground.  As  the  name  indicates,  it  is  a  popular  indoor 
game  during  the  winter  months.  The  rules  are  similar  to 
ordinary  baseball,  except  that  the  pitcher  must  deliver  the 
ball  under-handed  instead  of  overhanded  as  in  baseball. 
The  runner  on  the  base  cannot  leave  until  the  ball  has 
passed  over  the  home  plate  or  has  been  hit  by  the  batter. 
The  game  has  a  decided  advantage  over  baseball,  in  that 
younger  children  can  play  it,  as  well  as  the  girls  and  women 
teachers  of  the  schools.  The  ordinary  rural  school  seldom 
has  older  boys  enough  to  play  baseball.  Another  advan- 
tage is  in  the  small  space  required  for  "playground  ball," 
as  indoor  baseball  is  often  called.  The  bases  are  usually 
only  thirty-five  feet  apart.  The  pitcher  also  stands  thirty- 
five  feet  from  the  home  plate.  A  large,  soft  ball  from 
twelve  to  seventeen  inches  in  circumference  is  used,  and  a 
small  club  about  half  the  size  of  an  ordinary  ball  bat  com- 
pletes the  equipment.  The  small-sized  ball  is  better  for 
the  older  persons,  and  the  large  ball  for  younger  children. 

Tennis  is  pre-eminently  a  country  game,  as  it  requires 
plenty  of  room  and  may  be  played  by  two  or  four  persons. 
The  same  net  used  for  volley  ball  can  be  utilized  for  tennis. 
It  should  be  stretched  across  the  middle  of  the  court,  three 
and  one  half  feet  high  at  the  posts  and  three  feet  in  the 
center.  Small,  two  ounce  balls  and  thirteen  or  fourteen 
ounce  rackets  are  used.  The  court  should  be  seventy-eight 
by  thirty-six  feet  where  there  is  room,  but  smaller  space 
can  be  used.  If  the  sod  is  removed  and  the  ground  leveled, 
a  better  game  can  be  played.  The  court  is  marked  off  with 


PLAY  AND  SCHOOL  PLAYGROUND 


49 


78 

ft 

2  1  ft                 i£ 
<r 

16  TT. 

$ 

-M 

12 

1 

"5 

Figure  5.     Plan  of  a  double  tennis  court. 

lime.  The  player  who  first  delivers  the  ball  is  the  server. 
His  opponent  is  the  striker-out.  After  each  game  the 
players  change  sides.  The  server  stands  with  one  foot 
outside  of  the  base  line,  strikes  the  ball  with  the  racket, 
and  attempts  to  deliver  it  on  his  opponents  court,  which 
is  diagonally  opposite  his  own.  If  he  fails  in  the  first 
attempt,  he  uses  the  other  ball.  In  case  the  second  is  a 
failure,  the  striker-out  becomes  server.  When  the  ball  is 
delivered  properly,  and  the  opponent  fails  to  return  it,  the 
server  scores  fifteen.  The  second  score  is  called  thirty,  the 
third,  forty,  and  the  fourth,  game.  In  case  each  side  wins 
forty,  the  score  is  called  " deuce."  The  winner  of  the  next 
stroke  scores  an  "advantage,"  and,  in  case  he  wins  the 
next  score  also,  he  wins  the  game.  If  he  loses,  his  score 
goes  back  to  "deuce."  In  other  words,  a  player  must  win 
two  successive  strokes  after  scoring  "deuce,"  in  order  to 
win  the  game.  The  side  first  winning  six  games  wins  a 
set.  A  complete  set  of  rules  showing  also  how  to  lay  out 
grounds  can  be  obtained  for  ten  cents. 

The  horizontal  bar  is  a  simple  piece  of  apparatus  that 
will  be  used  a  great  deal  in  the  home  or  school  yard.     Two 

4 — 


50  RURAL  EDUCATION 

or  three  bars  should  be  placed  in  posts  that  are  five  or  six 
feet  apart.  There  should  be  a  few  inches  difference  in  the 
height  of  the  bars.  They  may  be  made  of  old  fork  handles 
or  a  piece  of  gas  pipe.  Sand,  or  some  other  soft  material, 
should  be  placed  under  the  bars. 
A  coaster  slide  may  be  home- 
made, if  care  is  taken  that  the 
boards  are  smooth.  Objection  is 
sometimes  made  to 
the  slide  by  mothers 
who  have  the  clothes 


Figure  6.     A  coaster  slide.     Similar  slides  may  be  made  for  the  home  and 
school  grounds. 

to  mend.  It  is  doubtful,  however,  if  a  smooth  surface  like 
this  is  as  hard  on  clothes  as  the  seats  of  the  desks  in  the 
schoolroom.  Small  children  especially  enjoy  this  piece  of 
apparatus. 

Hurdles  are  merely  the  old-fashioned  wooden  " horses" 
made  a  convenient  height  for  jumping  and  placed  at  inter- 
vals of  a  few  yards  or  rods,  as  desired.  The  grounds,  or 
even  the  road,  will  be  suitable,  if  there  is  no  special  place 
for  running  such  races.  This  is  a  good  form  of  exercise, 
and  will  please  young  and  older  children  alike. 

Football  of  the  modern  type,  or  rugby  as  it  is  called,  is 
too  strenuous  a  game  for  rural  schools  or  even  for  village 


PLAY  AND  SCHOOL  PLAYGROUND         51 

schools,  where  there  are  but  few  large  boys.  A  much  better 
form  of  the  game  is  the  association  football,  or  soccer. 
This  is  an  open  play  game,  not  dangerous  nor  too  severe, 
and  yet  requires  great  skill  on  the  part  of  the  individual 
player.  This  game  is  true  to  name,  as  the  large,  round  ball 
is  really  kicked  with  the  foot,  in  contrast  to  so  much  hand 
play  in  rugby.  It  is  also  a  more  interesting  game  for  specta- 
tors to  watch  than  the  other  form  of  football.  In  many 
rural  schools  of  the  East  it  is  one  of  the  favorite  games. 
The  ball  costs  from  three  to  five  dollars,  and  may  be  ob- 
tained from  dealers  of  standard  athletic  goods.  Complete 
rules  of  the  game  are  furnished. 

Basket  ball  has  become  one  of  the  common  games  in 
villages  and  larger  places,  but  it  has  not  yet  come  into  its 
own  in  the  country.  It  is  indeed  seldom  one  sees  a  basket 
ball  court  on  a  rural  school  playground.  The  rings  may  be 
made  at  any  blacksmith's  and  the  students  can  fasten  them 
to  the  posts.  About  all  the  expense  is  the  cost  of  the  ball. 
The  same  ball  used  for  volley  ball,  or  even  association  foot 
ball,  may  be  used  for  this  game.  Basket  ball  is  suitable  for 
girls  as  well  as  boys,  and  is  very  fine  exercise,  if  not  played 
too  strenuously.  Further  directions  are  not  necessary  here, 
as  a  rule  book  should  be  obtained  of  an  athletic  dealer. 

Croquet  is  one  of  the  best  games  for  the  home  yard, 
and  is  not  out  of  place  on  the  school  grounds.  In  fact,  it 
is  an  excellent  game  for  school  children,  if  a  part  of  the 
yard  can  be  set  aside  during  the  fall  and  spring  for  that 
purpose.  A  set  with  directions  for  playing  can  be  obtained 
for  about  one  dollar  and  a  half. 

Horseshoes,  or  quoits,  is  a  very  old  fashioned  game,  but 
one  that  is  always  interesting.  Children  and  grey  haired 
grandfathers  enjoy  it  alike.  Two  wooden  pegs,  or  railroad 
"spikes,"  if  they  can  be  obtained,  are  set  about  thirty-five 


52  RURAL  EDUCATION 

feet  apart,  so  that  they  project  out  of  the  ground  about  five 
or  six  inches.  Either  two  or  four  persons  may  play.  If 
four  play,  two  opponents  remain  at  each  stake.  If  only 
two  play,  it  is  necessary  for  them  to  walk  to  the  other  peg 
each  time  after  pitching  the  quoits.  The  game  is  played 
with  oval  disks,  or  quoits,  sometimes,  but  more  often  with 
ordinary  horseshoes.  When  the  shoes  are  used,  the  corks 
should  be  reasonably  sharp.  Each  player  pitches  two 
shoes,  the  side  winning  the  last  "throw"  pitching  first. 
The  object  is  to  pitch  the  shoes  as  near  to  the  stake  as 
possible.  The  player  having  his  horseshoes  nearest  the 
peg  wins  the  "throw,"  and  scores  two  points,  if  both  shoes 
are  nearer  than  his  opponent's,  but  only  one  point,  if  only 
one  shoe  is  closer.  When  a  shoe  is  thrown  so  that  it  rests 
against  the  peg,  it  scores  two  points  for  the  player,  unless 
it  is  knocked  down  by  another  player.  A  shoe  thrown  over 
the  peg  counts  a  "ringer"  and  scores  three  points,  unless 
dislodged  by  a  succeeding  shoe.  The  player,  or  side,  if 
four  are  playing,  that  first  scores  eleven  points  wins  the 
game.  Six  games  constitute  a  "series,"  or  set,  as  in  tennis. 

Enough  games  suitable  for  older  children  have  been 
given  from  which  to  make  selection.  Interest  may  be  fur- 
ther stimulated  in  the  work  of  the  playground  by  holding 
interscholastic  athletic  contests  as  frequently  as  may  be 
deemed  advisable.  Such  contests  would  not  be  difficult  to 
arrange  between  nearby  schools,  and  should  be  conducive 
to  closer  co-operation  among  the  schools,  and  very  valuable 
from  a  social  standpoint. 

Another  form  of  recreation  which  should  be  the  birth- 
right of  every  boy  and  girl  is  camping.  How  many  boys 
and  girls  ever  get  a  real  vacation?  I  fear  altogether  too 
few.  The  joys  of  a  week  or  two  in  camp — the  hunting, 
fishing,  bathing,  or  strolling  in  the  woods  in  search  of  flowers, 


PLAY  AND  SCHOOL  PLAYGROUND         53 

are  not  soon  to  be  forgotten.  It  may  be  a  sacrifice  to  let 
the  children  go  during  the  busy  time  on  the  farm  or  in  the 
home,  but  it  is  worth  while.  It  is  a  part  of  an  education 
that  should  not  be  neglected.  The  time  spent  on  a  vaca- 
tion of  this  sort  will  be  repaid  a  hundred  fold  in  renewed 
physical  and  mental  vigor.  The  work  of  the  Boy  Scouts 
and  Camp  Fire  Girls  in  this  respect  is  worthy  of  the  support 
of  all  parents  and  teachers. 

It  would  not  be  proper  to  close  a  chapter  on  play  with- 
out suggesting  something  suitable  for  the  activities  of 
the  younger  children  on  the  playground.  The  following 
"games  that  every  child  should  know"  taken  from  the 
standard  authors  on  the  subject  of  play  may  be  helpful: 
Little  Children,  Cat  and  Mouse,  Jacob  and  Rachel,  Slap 
Jack,  Whip  Tag,  Hide  and  Seek,  Puss  in  the  Corner,  The 
Miller,  Farmer  in  the  Dell,  Bean  Bag,  London  Bridge,  The 
Needle's  Eye,  One  Old  Cat,  Witch  in  the  Jar,  Tag,  Lame 
Goose,  Run  Sheep  Run  and  Follow  the  Leader. 

For  those  a  little  older  this  list  is  appropriate:  School 
Master,  Blind  Man's  Buff,  Trades,  Drop  the  Handkerchief, 
Railroad  Game,  Duck-on-the-Rock,  Thumbs  Up,  Three 
Deep,  Button  Button,  Last  Couple  Out,  Bull  in  the  Ring, 
Leap  Frog,  Fox  and  Geese,  Pom  Pom  Pull  Away,  Prisoner's 
Base,  Captain  Ball,  Dodge  Ball,  Catch  Ball  and  Battle 
Ball.  The  last  four  require  a  basket  ball  or  volley  ball. 

Singing  games  have  a  peculiar  fascination  for  many 
children.  A  few  are  here  suggested:  London  Bridge, 
Green  Grass,  The  Farmer  in  the  Dell,  In  and  Out  the  Win- 
dow, The  Shoemaker,  I  Put  My  Right  Hand  In,  and  The 
Miller. 

Space  will  not  permit  a  discussion  of  these  games,  but 
many  of  them  will  be  found  in  "Education  by  Plays  and 
Games"  already  referred  to. 


CHAPTER  V 
TRAINING  RURAL  TEACHERS 

The  physician,  before  he  can  practise  medicine  must 
spend  four  years  in  high  school,  from  two  to  four  years 
in  a  general  college  course  and  from  two  to  four  years  more 
in  technical  training  for  his  profession.  This  makes  an 
average  of  about  ten  years  above  the  grades  in  special 
preparation,  in  addition  to  which  he  must  pass  an  examina- 
tion by  the  state  medical  board.  Likewise,  the  attorney 
must  spend  several  years  in  special  training  and  pass  the 
state  board  examination  before  he  can  be  admitted  to  the 
bar.  The  same  conditions  obtain  for  many  other  profes- 
sions. Until  recently,  however,  the  teacher  could  practice 
upon  the  mental  activities  of  the  rising  generation,  with 
altogether  too  little  academic  training,  and  no  professional 
preparation.  Even  yet  we  hear  expressions  similar  to  this: 
"She  surely  knows  enough  to  teach  a  country  school." 
The  average  layman  thinks  the  person  who  holds  a  college 
diploma  should  be  capable  of  teaching  any  subject  anywhere. 

The  evolution  of  professional  training  for  teachers  from 
the  itinerant  schoolmaster  "boarding  'round"  to  the  highly 
trained  specialists  of  to-day  is  very  interesting,  but  this 
change  has  not  until  recently  affected  the  country  schools. 
Not  many  years  ago  the  county  superintendent  was  the  sole 
judge  as  to  the  qualifications  of  his  teachers.  And  he  still 
is  in  some  states.  He  formulated  the  questions,  gave  the 
examinations,  and  marked  the  papers.  If  the  candidate 
did  not  pass,  the  county  superintendent  had  the  power  to 
issue  a  permit.  While  undoubtedly  most  officials  were 
entirely  conscientious  in  the  discharge  of  their  duties,  the 
system  was  conducive  to  favoritism  and  sometimes  even 

54 


TRAINING  RURAL  TEACHERS  55 

dishonesty.  At  its  best  it  was  inefficient.  Uniform  exam- 
inations and  state  supervision  was  the  next  step.  Then  a 
permit  by  the  county  superintendent  was  restricted  to  one 
term.  In  other  ways  the  standards  have  gradually  been 
raised  until  many  states  now  require  some  professional 
training  in  addition  to  the  academic  work.  In  Minnesota 
every  teacher  is  now  required  to  have  at  least  one  year 
of  professional  training  for  a  first  grade  certificate. 

City  trained  girls  do  not  usually  make  good  country 
schoolteachers,  and  this  is  perfectly  natural.  The  environ- 
ment of  the  country  is  so  different  from  that  of  the  city  or 
even  of  the  village.  Furthermore,  the  entire  course  of 
study  for  the  rural  school  is  gradually  but  surely  being 
revised  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  community  it  serves.  These 
needs  are  vastly  different  from  those  of  the  city.  The 
United  States  Commissioner  of  Education,  Dr.  Claxton,  in 
a  recent  address  before  a  body  of  teachers,  said,  "All  edu- 
cation to  be  educational  and  cultural  must  be  vocational." 
This  statement,  applied  to  the  rural  schools,  means  that 
such  subjects  as  agriculture  and  home  economics  must 
receive  direct  attention,  and  that  the  entire  course  must  be 
industrialized.  This  does  not  necessarily  mean  that  the 
teacher  must  do  more  work  than  she  has  been  doing.  She 
will  teach  the  same  number  of  hours,  but  it  does  mean  that 
the  education  and  training  of  the  rural  teachers  must  be 
vastly  different  from  what  it  has  been  in  the  past. 

The  rural  teacher  of  the  future  must  not  only  be  as  well 
trained  as  the  city  teacher,  but  better.  The  city  school 
system  has  its  superintendent,  supervisors,  principals  and 
special  teachers  to  assist  the  teacher,  not  to  mention  en- 
gineers and  janitors.  The  country  teacher  must  be  all  of 
these  officials  and  workmen  combined.  A  knowledge  of 
country  life  is  the  first  requisite  for  the  country  teacher. 


56  RURAL  EDUCATION 

This  knowledge  should  be  gained  at  first  hand.  In  other 
words,  the  teacher  of  the  country  should  come  from  the 
country.  To  her  natural  qualifications,  however,  must  be 
added  academic,  industrial  and  professional  training. 

The  academic  training  should  be  broad  and  deep.     "Sur- 
face" or  "shallow"  students  are  not  the  kind  to  make  teach- 
ing  their   profession.     Thoroughness   must   be   the   watch 
word.     It  is  not  sufficient  to  know  the  common  branches 
well  when  they  are  taken  in  the  upper  grades.     These  sub- 
jects should  all  be  reviewed  in  the  high  school  with  a  special 
view  to  teaching  them.     Many  teachers  do  not  get  good 
results  in  spelling,   writing,   music  and   drawing,   because 
they,  themselves,  are  not  well  grounded  in  them.     These, 
as  well  as  geography,  arithmetic,  history,  civics,  grammar, 
composition,    and    a   general    course   in    English    classics, 
should  be  part  of  the  high  school  academic  work  for  teachers. 
It  is  probably  not  necessary  to  state  that,  in  the  future,  no 
person  should  be  allowed  to  teach  in  the  rural  schools  who 
has  not  at  least  a  full  high  school  education.     The  special 
professional  training  should  follow  the  high  school  course. 
Certificates  should  be  issued  only  on  diplomas  from  rec- 
ognized professional  courses,  discontinuing  the  examination 
plan.     Topics  that  should  be  required  are  elementary  alge- 
bra, English  classics,  and  composition  during  the  four-year 
course,  physiology  and  hygiene,  general  history,  zoology, 
and  botany,  physics  and  chemistry.     The  sciences  should 
all  be  greatly  revised  and  industrialized.     A  half  year  each 
of  physics  and  chemistry  could  be  made  much  more  prac- 
tical than  the  present  courses  of  one  year.     Foreign  lan- 
guages  are   cultural,    but  not   essential.     Culture   is   also 
found  in  manual  training  and  agriculture  and  these  subjects 
are  of  more  immediate  and  practical  value.     Geometry  is 
not  necessary.     Economics  should  be  encouraged. 


TRAINING  RURAL  TEACHERS  57 

Industrial  work  is  becoming  more  and  more  necessary 
to  meet  the  demands.  A  brief  course  in  weaving  and 
basketry  is  no  longer  sufficient.  Every  prospective  teacher 
should  have  at  least  a  full  year  high  school  credit  in  domestic 
science,  one  in  domestic  art,  and  one  in  general  agriculture. 
The  domestic  science  must  be  broader  than  a  course  in 
plain  cooking.  Serving,  laundering,  home  sanitation,  nutri- 
tion, household  management,  including  purchasing  of  ma- 
terials and  keeping  accounts,  are  essentials.  Every  girl 
should  learn  to  do  good,  plain  sewing,  not  only  hand,  but 
machine  work.  One  preparing  to  teach  must  know  these 
things  so  well  that  one  can  use  what  is  practicable  for  the 
rural  school.  While  there  may  be  some  difference  of  opinion 
regarding  how  much  of  this  should  be  taught,  there  is  no 
doubt  that  darning,  patching,  and  other  very  useful  plain 
needle  work  can  be  done  as  well  in  a  country  school  as  in 
the  grades  of  a  village  school,  provided  the  teachers  are 
equally  well  trained.  Also  the  teacher  who  is  independent 
and  capable  enough  to  make  her  own  garments,  will  be  more 
respected  in  the  community  than  the  one  who  cannot. 
The  agricultural  work  should  include  farm  crops  and  the 
elements  of  animal  husbandry,  especially  dairying. 

A  collection  of  weeds  and  weed  seeds  should  be  made 
and  their  eradication  understood.  The  common  grains  and 
grasses,  crop  rotation,  and  farm  accounts  are  topics  to  be 
carefully  studied.  The  teacher  should  also  acquire  enough 
knowledge  and  skill  in  manual  training  to  be  able  to  direct 
the  boys  in  simple  exercises  such  as  those  suggested  in  this 
book.  Drawings  are  not  hard  to  read  and  interpret,  if  a 
little  time  is  devoted  to  them.  Most  teachers  find  a  fas- 
cination in  doing  this  kind  of  industrial  work 

The  professional  training  will  probably  more  largely 
determine  the  success  of  the  teacher  than  either  the  aca- 


58  RURAL  EDUCATION 

demic  or  industrial.  As  already  shown,  it  is  absolutely 
essential.  The  standards  should  be  gradually  raised  until 
at  least  one  year  of  professional  training  should  be  given, 
offered  only  after  graduation  from  high  school.  The  work 
should  cover  practical  child  study,  rural  economics,  methods 
in  all  the  common  branches,  including  the  industrial  sub- 
jects, school  organization  and  management  and  practice 
teaching.  It  is  sometimes  stated  that  teachers  will  get  more 
from  observation  than  from  actual  teaching.  This  is  a 
serious  mistake.  A  little  observation  of  the  work  of  a 
strong  teacher  will  assist  a  prospective  one  who  may  happen 
to  know  just  what  she  is  looking  for.  She  will  know  this 
only  by  teaching  experience.  Learn  to  teach  by  teaching 
may  sound  much  like  learning  to  read  by  reading,  but  both 
are  necessary  to  get  results.  I  should  have  a  student  begin 
to  teach  the  first  day  and  continue  at  least  one  hour  a  day 
throughout  the  entire  year.  Student  teaching  is  discussed 
more  at  length  under  the  training  department  in  high 
schools.  Just  where  the  professional  training  ought  to  be 
given  is  still  an  open  question.  The  colleges  of  education, 
normal  schools,  county  training  schools,  and  normal  depart- 
ments in  high  schools  are  all  available  for  triis  purpose. 

The  college  of  education  in  a  university  and  the  depart- 
ment of  education  in  a  college  give  opportunity  to  those  who 
are  fitting  themselves  for  high  school  positions.  Many  of 
the  courses  have  been  and  some  still  are  too  abstract  and 
theoretical.  A  course  in  general  psychology  is  perhaps  a 
good  foundation  for  teaching,  but  it  is  to  be  regarded  as 
academic  rather  than  professional.  Practical  child  study 
learned  at  first  hand  in  the  classroom,  will  be  of  much  more 
direct  value  to  the  teacher.  Methods  taught  by  teachers 
with  long  experiences  in  the  high  schools  rather  than  by  col- 
lege professors;  better  knowledge  of  the  high  school  subjects 


TRAINING  RURAL   TEACHERS  59 

to  be  taught  after  leaving  college ;  a  practical  course  in  school 
organization,  law,  and  management,  and  a  little  more  com- 
mon sense  pedagogy  are  some  of  the  urgent  needs  at  present. 
Superintendents  are  likely  to  complain  more  about  the  me- 
chanics of  the  schoolroom  than  any  other  one  thing.  Teach- 
ers make  serious  mistakes  in  the  use  of  the  school  register, 
reports,  filling  out  various  necessary  forms  and  sometimes 
in  exceeding  their  authority  with  students.  Vague  notions 
of  what  constitutes  good  order  and  discipline  in  the  school- 
room often  result  in  failure  before  the  end  of  the  year. 
When  questioned  about  these  things  the  blame  is  nearly 
always  laid  on  the  course  preparing  them  for  teaching.  "We 
never  had  anything  like  that  in  college"  is  a  familiar  state- 
ment to  every  superintendent.  Teachers  are  influenced 
directly  by  the  way  they  have  been  taught,  and  perhaps 
unconsciously  imitate  those  who  have  influenced  them  most. 
Unfortunately  this  is  not  always  conducive  to  good  teaching. 
The  great  lecturers  are  not  always  good  classroom  instruc- 
tors. A  department  of  education  needs  both.  From  this 
criticism  it  might  appear  that  these  institutions  are  not 
worthy.  Such  an  inference  is  incorrect.  They  do,  however, 
need  the  same  practical  readjustment  that  is  taking  place 
in  many  of  the  other  educational  units,  and  happily  many  of 
those  in  charge  are  devising  means  for  providing  the  neces- 
sary practical  experience.  Visits  from  representatives  of 
colleges  to  secondary  schools  and  questionaires  sent  to  school 
officials  show  that  the  authorities  are  abreast  of  the  times. 
It  may  not  be  evident  just  what  connection  the  college  of 
education  has  with  the  preparation  of  rural  school  teachers. 
Unfortunately,  but  little  at  present.  That  it  is  destined  to 
become  more  and  more  a  factor  in  rural  training,  however, 
cannot  be  questioned.  Consolidated  schools  and  better 
smaller  schools  will  demand  teachers  of  high  scholarship. 


60 


RURAL  EDUCATION 


The  agricultural  colleges  through  their  regular  courses  and 
summer  sessions  are  meeting  the  need  at  present  better  than 
any  other  agency.  That  the  professional  side  of  this  training 
needs  strengthening  cannot  be  denied.  In  Minnesota  and 
other  states  a  department  of  education  in  the  college  of  agri- 
culture is  materially  assisting  in  supplying  the  demand  for 
professionally  trained  industrial  teachers. 


Figure  7.     High  school  normal  girls  fitting  themselves  by  actual  field  work. 

The  Winona  (Minnesota)  State  Normal  has  established 
a  modern  rural  school,  the  teacher  for  which  will  be  furnish- 
ed free  of  cost  to  the  district,  which  will  supply  the  building 
and  all  the  equipment.  The  teacher  is  a  member  of  the 
normal  school  faculty,  and  it  is  her  mission  to  work  out  the 
very  best  rural  school  that  can  be  made.  Prospective 
teachers  go  there  regularly  to  receive  instruction. 

The  state  normal  schools  have  been  the  most  effective 
agencies  in  supplying  teachers.  That  they  have  failed  to 
develop  the  country  schools  is  not  the  fault  of  these  insti- 
tutions. The  demand  for  grade  teachers  in  cities  and  vil- 
lages, due  largely  to  a  short  tenure  of  office,  has  prevented 
rural  schools  from  getting  much  direct  benefit  from  the 


TRAINING  RURAL  TEACHERS  61 

normal  schools.  That  this  demand  will  not  only  continue, 
but  increase,  is  to  be  expected.  It  is,  therefore,  logical  to 
think  that  the  normal  schools  be  regarded  the  proper  unit 
of  the  public  school  system  to  supply  teachers  for  the  graded 
schools.  It  is  task  enough.  They  specialize  in  this  one 
line  of  work,  admitting  only  high  school  graduates  to  their 
courses.  Attendance  at  these  schools  usually  necessitates 
being  at  a  long  distance  from  home,  and  should  not  be  neces- 
sary for  teachers  of  one-room  rural  schools.  Those  who  qual- 
ify for  consolidated  schools  could  attend  the  special  courses 
in  agricultural  colleges,  as  suggested  above.  Unnecessary 
duplication  of  equipment  in  different  parts  of  the  state 
would  be  avoided  and  all  would  benefit  by  the  arrangement. 

County  training  schools  have  been  tried  in  both  Wisconsin 
and  Michigan  and  most  of  them  have  been  successful.  The 
chief  objection  to  them  would  seem  to  be  the  extra  expense 
of  duplication  of  equipment  without  the  desirable  feature 
of  keeping  students  in  their  home  communities.  One  who 
has  to  go  fifteen  or  twenty  miles  away,  even  though  it  may 
be  in  his  own  county,  may  as  well  go  farther  and  attend  one 
of  the  larger  schools  with  better  facilities.  It  can  readily 
be  seen  that  in  the  average  country  town  there  is  no  demand 
for  a  county  school  to  teach  academic  work.  This  is  amply 
offered  in  the  local  high  school,  and  when  given  in  the  county 
institutions,  it  is  not  only  an  added  expense,  but  draws  from 
the  enrollment  of  the  high  schools.  If  only  professional 
work  is  to  be  offered  in  these  schools,  why  not  combine 
them  with  the  high  schools,  making  a  special  department 
for  rural  school  training?  This  is  precisely  the  question 
that  was  discussed  and  considered  at  length  in  Minnesota 
a  few  years  ago,  with  the  result  that  high  school  training 
departments  were  established. 

The   "Minnesota   Plan"   does   away   with   the   parallel 


62  RURAL  EDUCATION 

system  and  eliminates  the  objections  to  the  county  training 
schools.  The  regular  students  of  the  high  school  who  intend 
to  teach  can  receive  their  training  in  the  home  institution 
and  usually  teach  somewhere  in  the  home  community. 
This  plan  is  both  convenient  and  fitting.  The  legislature 
appropriated  $750  aid  to  each  high  school  offering  a  training 
course.  Later  this  amount  was  raised  to  $1,000,  and  a 
commission  has  recently  recommended  that  it  be  further 
increased  to  $2,500  annually  and  a  two-year  course  offered 
instead  of  one  year  as  at  present.  Students  who  enter  this 
department  are  required  by  the  state  department  to  have 
at  least  one  year  of  high  school  work.  Many  schools  allow 
only  high  school  seniors  to  take  the  course,  and  the  standards 
are  being  raised,  so  that  eventually  only  high  school  gradu- 
ates may  be  admitted.  A  teacher  of  professional  training 
and  unusually  successful  experience  in  rural  and  other  schools 
is  placed  in  charge  of  the  department.  About  half  of  the 
high  schools  in  the  state  now  have  these  departments,  and 
it  is  possible  for  the  others  to  secure  them.  A  state  inspec- 
tor of  training  departments  has  been  recently  appointed. 

High  school  training  departments  should  be  able  to 
meet  the  needs  of  small  rural  schools  of  one  and  two  teachers 
better  than  any  of  the  other  institutions  named.  The  rea- 
sons for  this  are  obvious  in  view  of  the  discussion  given 
above.  The  academic  work  should  be  done  in  the  regular 
high  school  courses.  This  training  should  ultimately  be 
made  a  two-year  course,  one  year  consisting  of  reviews  and 
methods  of  the  common  branches,  including  industrial  work; 
and  the  other,  professional  work  and  practice  teaching. 
After  several  years  of  experience  with  training  departments 
in  two  schools,  with  four  different  supervisors  of  these  de- 
partments, I  am  firmly  convinced  that  the  teaching  the 
students  do  is  the  most  valuable  part  of  the  course.  Various 


TRAINING  RURAL  TEACHERS  63 

plans  for  conducting  the  practice  teaching  have  been  tried 
in  this  state.  Some  departments  have  insisted  that  the 
"cadets"  should  observe  the  work  of  the  regular  teachers 
for  a  term  or  a  semester  before  attempting  to  teach.  Others 
have  had  them  begin  with  small  groups,  after  a  few  weeks 
of  observation.  Still  others  have  had  the  students  observe 
and  teach  in  nearby  rural  schools,  substituting  for  the 
regular  teacher,  as  the  occasion  required.  We  have  tried 
all  of  these  plans.  One  year  the  training  department  had 
entire  charge  of  our  sixth  grade,  following  a  provision  made 
by  the  former  superintendent  the  year  before.  This  was 
so  successful,  thanks  to  an  energetic  training  supervisor, 
that  not  a  complaint  was  heard  from  any  of  the  parents. 
While  practice  teaching  conducted  in  the  ways  suggested 
is  much  better  than  none,  it  is  not  the  kind  of  training  the 
prospective  rural  teacher  needs.  Observation  in  a  grade 
of  a  village  school  cannot  be  directly  applied  to  teaching 
except  in  a  village  school.  It  is  true,  that  the  general 
principles  are  the  same,  but  the  application,  and  more 
particularly  the  organization  is  very  different.  Young 
teachers  are  imitative,  usually  too  much  so,  and  the  fact 
is  that  they  do  not  adapt  their  grade  methods  to  the  rural 
school  that  must  be  conducted  very  differently.  The  plan 
of  using  a  nearby  rural  school  for  practice  teaching  has  been 
tried  with  success  by  some.  While  it  affords  an  excellent 
means  of  supplementing  the  regular  teaching,  I  do  not  be- 
lieve it  is  practicable  to  attempt  to  conduct  all  of  the  teach- 
ing in  this  way.  There  are  too  many  obstacles  to  interfere 
in  the  average  community.  Not  more  than  one  or  two 
cadets  could  observe  and  teach  in  such  a  school  in  any  one 
day.  The  others  must  still  be  provided  for  in  some  other 
way,  or  not  teach  until  their  turn  came  again.  A  means 
of  transportation  must  be  provided  regularly  and  this  would 


64 


RURAL  EDUCATION 


necessitate  a  considerable  expenditure  during  the  year. 
The  supervisor  of  the  department  could  not  observe  the 
teaching,  unless  the  other  members  of  the  class  were  left 
alone.  These  are  a  few  of  the  objections  to  making  a 
regular  rural  school  the  sole  means  of  practice  teaching. 
The  most  serious  objection  at  the  present  time,  moreover, 
is  the  inability  to  secure  for  these  schools  teachers  who  are 
competent  to  act  as  critics  and  give  practical  help  to  begin- 
ners, as  must  be  done,  if  the  work  is  to  be  effective. 

The  ungraded '  room  is  probably  not  a  cure  for  all  the 
pedagogical  ills  of  training  departments,  but,  in  my  experi- 
ence, it  has  been  by  far  the  most  practical  means  of  con- 
ducting practice  teaching.  We  have  tried  this  in  numerous 
ways.  At  first  by  taking  students  from  several  of  the 


Figure  8.  The  "ungraded  room,"  or  rural  school  oi  a  teachers'  training  depart- 
ment. The  student  teacher  is  using  the  "Division  Plan"  of  organizing  the 
school  and  the  two  classes  of  the  Second  Division  arithmetic  are  reciting  at  the 
same  time.  See  Chapter  VIII. 


TRAINING  RURAL  TEACHERS  65 

grades  and  combining  them  in  certain  subjects  in  which 
they  were  weak.  Then  we  tried  half  day  sessions  with  the 
children  from  each  of  the  grades.  Finally,  the  ungraded 
room  was  kept  running  all  day  long,  but  the  students  were 
in  this  room  only  a  month,  or  some  other  convenient  unit. 
There  are  two  good  reasons  why  these  methods  were  not 
successful.  First,  the  ungraded  room  must  not  be  used  as 
a  "catch-all"  for  backward  students.  To  make  it  such  is 
an  injustice  to  pupils  and  student  teacher  alike.  Second, 
as  long  as  the  responsibility  is  divided  between  the  ur  graded 
room  and  the  grade  teachers,  no  one  is  responsible.  The 
regular  teacher  blames  the  student  teacher  if  the  child  is 
behind  grade,  and  the  student  teacher  cannot  follow  an 
ungraded  plan  and  have  the  child  do  exactly  the  same  work 
as  the  others  of  his  grade  at  the  same  time.  In  order  to 
keep  him  up  to  grade  she  must  get  the  lesson  from  the 
regular  teacher  each  day  and  conduct  a  little  graded  school 
— the  precise  thing  she  should  not  do  to  prepare  her  to  teach 
in  a  country  school. 

The  remedy,  then,  is  to  conduct  the  ungraded  room 
independently  of  the  grades.  Since  we  have  been  follow- 
ing this  plan  we  have  had  no  serious  objections  to  meet. 
Parents  have  asked  to  have  their  children  put  into  this 
room,  but  no  requests  have  been  made  to  have  pupils  taken 
out  and  put  into  the  grades.  When  the  room  was  organized, 
it  was  to  take  the  place  of  the  sixth  grade  referred  to  above, 
which  did  not  give  suitable  training  for  rural  schools.  The 
children  were  selected  from  the  other  rooms  of  the  schools, 
rather  at  random,  only  two  things  being  considered..  One 
was  to  have  a  representative  room,  that  is,  not  all  backward 
students  nor  all  particularly  bright  ones, — just  an  average 
room.  The  other  was  that  at  least  half  must  be  country  stu- 
dents actually  living  on  farms.  In  this  way  two  dozen  chil- 


66  RURAL  EDUCATION 

dren  were  chosen  from  the  first  six  grades  of  the  school,  thus 
making  about  an  average  rural  school.  These  children  not 
only  remained  in  the  ungraded  room  the  entire  year,  but  came 
back  to  this  room  the  next  year,  excepting  those  who  were 
promoted  to  the  Junior  High  School.  A  new  class  of  begin- 
ners was  taken  into  the  room  at  the  first  of  the  second  year. 

This  plan  is  still  in  successful  operation.  The  supervisor 
of  the  training  department  is  responsible  for  the  ungraded 
room.  In  fact,  it  is  part  of  her  department,  with  a  door 
between  the  student  teacher's  room  and  the  ungraded  room. 
The  cadets  start  to  observe  and  teach  in  this  room  from  the 
first  day.  They  keep  the  daily  register,  prepare  the  lesson 
plans  and  make  out  the  report  cards  the  same  as  other 
teachers  in  the  building.  The  room  is  not  run  as  a  graded 
school,  but  the  course  of  study  and  the  daily  program 
suggested  in  Chapters  VII  and  VIII  of  this  book  are  fol- 
lowed. The  head  of  the  department  is  made  responsible 
for  the  supervision  of  playgrounds  at  recess,  and  the  cadets 
assist  the  regular  teachers  in  the  games  suggested  in  Chapter 
IV.  The  industrial  courses  suggested  in  this  book  are  in 
operation  including  the  booklets  in  language  work  and  the 
hot  lunch  plan.  An  attempt  is  made  to  carry  out  the 
entire  course  of  study  as  it  is  outlined  for  rural  schools. 

The  student  teachers  get  at  least  an  hour  of  teaching 
every  day  throughout  the  entire  year.  This  is  not  all  in 
the  ungraded  room.  Groups  from  the  regular  grades  are 
taken  for  lessons  in  reading,  language,  arithmetic  and  such 
subjects  as  can  be  well  cared  for  in  this  manner.  Some- 
times an  entire  division  is  taken  from  a  crowded  room,  thus 
relieving  the  regular  teachers.  At  the  close  of  each  day  the 
student  teachers  meet  for  " criticisms"  and  a  general  dis- 
cussion of  the  work. 

State  certificates  are  issued  to  those  who  complete  the 


TRAINING  RURAL  TEACHERS  67 

course  in  the  training  department,  based  on  their  academic 
and  professional  work.  These  certificates  are  good  in  any 
rural  school  in  Minnesota.  The  students  from  our  depart- 
ment have  been  located  each  year  before  graduation,  so 
strong  has  been  the  demand  for  teachers  with  professional 
training.  Most  of  them  have  been  employed  in  our  own 
associated  rural  districts.  It  should  be  understood  that 
the  departments  are  not  large,  the  number  of  students 
varying  from  eight  to  twenty  in  the  state  as  a  whole. 

The  question  of  teachers'  wages  is  a  serious  one.  With 
the  raising  of  the  qualifications  for  teaching  one  sometimes 
wonders  if  it  is  worth  while  to  make  such  preparations  for 
the  remuneration.  Fortunately,  increase  of  salary  goes  with 
the  raising  of  standards  and  is  likely  to  continue  to  do  so. 
The  average  wages  paid  the  graduates  of  the  department 
mentioned  above  have  been  about  fifty-five  dollars  a  month 
the  first  year.  This  is  better  than  the  average  grade  teach- 
er's wages  for  the  first  year  of  service,  and  most  of  them 
have  made  longer  preparation.  While  wages  are  still  far 
below  what  they  should  be,  it  is  well  for  teachers  to  remem- 
ber that  the  reason  for  the  poor  pay  is,  to  a  great  extent, 
due  to  the  fact  that  teaching  is  at  best  but  a  semi-profes- 
sion. A  teacher  usually  gets  all  she  earns  the  first  year — 
often  more.  The  second  year  she  is  worth  more,  but  just 
then  she  quits  teaching.  It  is  said  that  the  average  service 
is  but  two  years.  If  teaching  could  be  made  a  real  pro- 
fession, remuneration  would  be  more  adequate  to  the 
service  rendered  by  those  who  made  it  a  life  work.  Teach- 
ers of  rural  schools  in  Europe  receive  living  wages,  but  we 
must  adopt  the  European  plan  of  employing  men  teachers 
for  the  country  schools,  and  of  having  the  same  teacher  in 
the  community  for  ten,  twenty-five  or  forty  years,  if  we  are 
to  get  the  European  wage  scale.  Our  consolidated  rural 


68  RURAL  EDUCATION 

school  will  help  this  matter,  undoubtedly,  as  it  will  tend  to 
enhance  the  position  of  the  teacher. 

Teachers'  pensions  are  being  agitated  and  granted. 
Some  states  have  passed  bills  that  are  fairly  satisfactory. 
The  Minnesota  legislature  has  just  recently  passed  a  bill 
allowing  an  annuity  of  $350  after  twenty  years  of  service, 
and  $500  a  year  after  twenty-five  years.  The  funds  are 
raised  by  a  uniform  levy  among  the  teachers  themselves, 
amounting  to  about  $500  during  the  first  twenty  years  and 
by  a  special  state  tax  for  that  purpose.  Such  a  pension 
law  would  seem  equitable.  It  would,  in  a  way,  compen- 
sate those  who  spent  the  best  part  of  their  lives  in  teaching 
for  the  low  salaries  received  during  this  service.  No  soldier 
on  the  battle  field  ever  served  his  country  any  more  effi- 
ciently than  the  faithful,  conscientious  teacher  who  spends 
twenty-five  years  of  her  life  in  this  service,  and  none  is 
more  deserving  of  a  pension  than  she. 

The  teacher  becomes  automatically  eligible  to  this  re- 
tirement fund  and  must  contribute  annually  a  sum  which 
increases  from  five  to  thirty  dollars.  In  case  of  removal  or 
death,  half  the  amount  paid  is  refunded.  The  last  five  years 
of  service  must  have  been  in  Minnesota.  The  act  does  not 
apply  to  cities  of  the  first  class  or  to  the  State  University. 

The  course  of  study  used  in  our  teachers'  training  depart- 
ment is  here  appended  for  those  who  may  be  interested  in 
it.  The  student  elects  this  course  at  the  beginning  of  the 
tenth  or  sophomore  year  in  high  school.  A  three-year 
junior  high  school  course  is  preparatory  to  the  senior  courses. 
In  the  junior  course  English  is  required  for  three  years,  a 
modern  language  is  elective,  general  industrial  work,  agri- 
culture, manual  training,  domestic  science,  sewing,  are 
required  at  least  one  year  each,  and  civics,  as  well  as  all 
the  common  branches,  receives  proper  attention. 


TRAINING  RURAL  TEACHERS 


69 


TRAINING  DEPARTMENT  COURSE 
TENTH  YEAR 


First  Term 

Second  Term 

Third  Term 

English 
Ele.  Algebra 
or 
Plane  Geometry 
Domestic  Science 

English 
Ele.  Algebra 
or 
Plane  Geometry 
Domestic  Science 

English 
Ele.  Algebra 
or 
Plane  Geometry 
Domestic  Science 

or 
Manual  Training 
Zoology 

or 
Manual  Training 
Zoology 

or 
Manual  Training 
Botany 
Agriculture 

English 

Arithmetic 

Agriculture,  Sewing 

Manual  Training 

Civics 

Teaching 


ELEVENTH  YEAR 


English 
General  History 
Chemistry 
or 
Physics 
Sewing 

English 
General  History 
Chemistry 
or 
Physics 
Sewing 

English 
General  History 
Food  Study 
or 
Household  Physics 
Sewing 
Agriculture 

TWELFTH  YEAR 

English 
Geography 
History 

Industrial  Work 
Teaching 


Grammar 
Music,  Hygiene 
School  Management 
Rural  Sociology 
Teaching 


CHAPTER  VI 
SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT 

The  character  of  the  teacher's  preparation  will  largely 
determine  her  success  in  the  management  of  her  school.  In 
the  last  chapter  there  was  given  an  outline  of  some  of  the 
requisites  of  a  thorough  training.  Those  who  have  not  been 
fortunate  enough  to  secure  such  training  in  school  need  not 
despair,  if  they  will  apply  themselves.  Every  teacher 
should  go  to  her  school  equipped  with  certain  helps  that  are 
almost  indispensable.  There  should  be  a  few  homemade 
charts  for  the  first-year  students  in  reading.  Chart-board 
about  twenty-two  by  twenty-eight  can  be  easily  obtained. 
Pictures  from  magazines,  and  a  printing  press  will  complete 
the  necessaries  for  chart-making.  If  it  is  known  what  book 
will  be  used  in  the  beginning  class,  the  charts  should  be 
based  upon  the  words  found  in  the  first  few  pages.  Some 
special  devices  that  can  be  used  as  seat  work  in  language  and 
arithmetic  should  also  be  prepared,  as  well  as  phonics  charts 
and  flash  cards  for  word  drills.  The  making  of  these  simple 
helps  will  not  require  much  time,  and  the  teacher  will  enjoy 
the  satisfaction  of  being  prepared  for  her  work  from  the 
first  day.  I  have  seen  young  teachers  lose  control  of  the 
room  the  first  week,  because  they  had  not  prepared  and 
planned  the  work  and  could  not  keep  the  students  inter- 
ested. Remember  that  interest  is  the  cure  for  the  majority 
of  the  ills  of  school  life.  With  it,  discipline  takes  care  of 
itself;  let  the  students  lose  interest,  and  trouble  begins.  A 
prominent  educator  walked  into  our  class  in  school  manage- 
ment one  day,  and,  without  a  comment,  wrote  this  sentence 
on  the  board:  " Attitude  is  the  greatest  factor  in  educa- 
tion." True.  The  attitude  of  the  teacher  and  of  the 

70 


SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  71 

students  toward  their  work  will  largely  determine  the  char- 
acter of  the  results. 

A  teacher  should  visit  her  school  long  enough  before  the 
opening  of  the  term  to  have  her  recommendations  adopted. 
The  floor  and  walls  should  be  cleaned  as  well  as  the  windows 
and  the  schoolroom  thoroughly  disinfected.  The  rooin 
should  be  made  as  attractive  as  possible,  as  the  environment 
will  directly  affect  the  teacher's  work  as  well  as  that  of  the 
students.  The  outhouses  should  be  inspected  and  carefully 
cleaned  and  disinfected. 

The  school  register,  records,  and  course  of  study  should 
be  obtained  from  the  clerk  of  the  district  and  carefully 
studied  before  the  opening  of  school.  A  school  census  is 
now  required  in  many  states.  This  is  taken  by  some  one 
authorized  by  the  board,  and  a  copy  is  given  to  the  teacher. 
She  is  then  able  to  determine  just  who  should  be  in  school 
when  the  term  opens.  The  laws  are  usually  strict  regarding 
attendance  at  school,  and  it  is  the  duty  of  the  teacher  to 
report  any  children  under  school  age  who  may  be  absent. 
In  Minnesota  the  law  requires  every  boy  and  girl  under  six- 
teen years  of  age  to  attend  school  every  day  there  is  school 
in  the  district,  unless  legally  excused  by  the  school  board. 
A  child  under  fourteen  years  of  age  cannot  legally  get  a  per- 
mit to  remain  away  from  school  without  a  physician's  certifi- 
cate that  his  health  would  be  impaired  if  he  remained  in 
school.  Blanks  should  be  provided  on  which  to  report  to 
the  county  superintendent,  as  well  as  to  the  clerk  of  the 
board,  any  violations  of  the  attendance  laws  of  the  state. 

A  suitable  boarding  place  must  be  obtained  for  which 
it  is  best  to  arrange  personally  before  the  opening  of  school. 
If  former  teachers  have  been  sensible,  there  will  be  little 
difficulty.  Country-bred  teachers  usually  have  no  trouble 
in  finding  a  boarding  place,  nor  in  holding  one.  The 


72  RURAL  EDUCATION 

city  girls  and  young  men  spoil  things  for  the  teachers 
that  follow. 

The  first  day  of  school  will  have  no  terrors  for  the  young 
teacher  who  has  carried  out  the  suggestions  given  above. 
She  is  prepared  for  her  work  and  should  feel  confident  of 
success.  She  should  have  a  working  program  of  the  recita- 
tions and  study  periods  on  the  board  for  the  guidance  of 
herself  as  well  as  of  the  pupils.  Either  a  temporary  or 
permanent  program  is  necessary  from  the  first  day  on. 
If  the  records  have  been  studied,  the  teacher  will  know 
just  what  classes  will  have  to  be  organized.  Classification 
must  be  made  quickly  and  lessons  assigned.  A  business-like 
teacher  will  command  the  respect  of  the  pupils  from  the 
start.  The  teacher  who  can  secure  the  confidence  and  co- 
operation of  her  students  the  first  day  will  very  likely  hold 
both  throughout  the  year. 

The  environment  of  pupils  has  much  to  do  with  their 
ability  to  work  in  the  schoolroom.  The  windows  should 
not  only  be  well  arranged,  so  that  the  light  is  good,  but 
the  teacher  must  see  that  the  shades  are  regulated  to  admit 
light  to  the  best  advantage.  The  careful  teacher  will  not 
forget  to  roll  the  shades  on  dark  days,  nor  to  draw  them 
when  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun  are  in  the  eyes  of  the  pupils. 

The  heating  plant  needs  careful  study  and  attention. 
The  dampers  must  be  kept  well  regulated,  so  that  plenty  of 
fresh  air  may  be  obtained.  Use  the  lime  water  test  and 
make  sure  that  the  air  is  reasonably  pure.  In  cold  weather 
the  dampers  should  all  be  kept  closed  until  after  the  fire  is 
well  started.  The  room  will  be  heated  more  quickly  in  this 
manner  and  fuel  will  be  saved.  It  goes  without  saying 
that  the  room  should  be  warm  and  comfortable  before  the 
students  arrive  in  the  morning.  The  district  should  employ 
a  janitor,  but,  if  the  teacher  contracts  to  do  the  janitor  work, 


SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  73 

she  must  be  present  early  enough  to  see  to  it.  The  school- 
room should  contain  desks  of  different  sizes,  and  the  teacher 
must  use  good  judgment  in  seating  the  children.  A  suit- 
able desk  of  such  height  that  the  feet  of  the  child  rest 
firmly  on  the  floor  and  do  not  dangle  is  necessary  to  health 
and  comfort.  The  desks  ought  to  be  arranged  so  that  the 
light  will  come  from  the  left,  or,  if  the  windows  are  not 
unilateral,  from  the  left  and  rear.  Of  course  these  advan- 
tages are  not  possible  in  the  old  "box  car"  type  of  building 
where  there  are  windows  on  both  sides  of  the  schoolhouse. 

The  students  should  be  encouraged  to  bring  flowers  in 
the  spring  and  fall.  If  the  building  is  sufficiently  warm,  a 
few  plants  can  be  kept  all  winter.  An  aquarium  is  always 
interesting  to  boys  and  girls  and  is  easily  made  and  stocked. 
A  few  tadpoles,  crayfish,  minnows,  snails,  clams,  etc.,  will 
be  all  that  is  necessary.  By  placing  a  few  water  plants  in 
the  sand  the  aquarium  may  be  made  self-supporting.  A 
small  reading  table  with  magazines  brought  from  the  homes 
will  not  be  abused  in  the  right  kind  of  schoolroom.  A 
small  stove  and  outfit  of  cooking  utensils  for  hot  lunches 
during  .the  cold  weather  may  be  neatly  arranged  in  one 
corner.  Exhibits,  homemade,  and  those  that  can  be  ob- 
tained from  firms  desiring  to  advertise,  but  such  as  will  be 
useful  without  marring  the  appearance  of  the  room,  may  be 
conveniently  arranged. 

But  few  rules  should  be  made  and  they  ought  not  to  be 
given  until  needed.  Do  not  make  the  serious  mistake  of 
giving  out  so  many  rules  the  first  day  that  the  unruly  boys 
will  have  an  opportunity  to  break  several  of  them  before 
night.  Observe  your  room  as  you  teach  and  know  every- 
thing that  is  going  on.  It  is  the  teacher  who  forgets  every- 
thing else  while  she  is  conducting  a  class  who  invites  trouble 
in  discipline,  *The  students  must  know  from  the  first  day 


74  RURAL  EDUCATION 

that  you  are  master  of  the  situation.  A  young  teacher 
once  took  charge  of  a  school  that  was  noted  for  being  partic- 
ularly unruly.  In  fact  the  previous  teacher  had  been 
forced  by  the  big  boys  to  leave.  The  first  day  the  new 
teacher  said  nothing  whatever  about  rules  nor  was  any  ref- 
erence made  to  the  fate  of  the  other  teacher.  He  was  busy 
"sizing  up"  the  room,  and  the  sizing  up  process  was  mutual. 
The  second  morning  the  teacher  arose  and  said, "Yesterday 
you  managed  the  school  and  I  observed;  beginning  with 
to-day,  I  will  run  it."  The  students  were  apparently  famil- 
iar enough  with  grammar  to  know  that  the  "will"  was  used 
advisedly,  and  there  was  not  the  slightest  inclination  to 
repeat  what  they  had  done.  Do  not  talk  about  what  you 
are  going  to  do — act  when  occasion  requires. 

Punishment  in  the  schoolroom  is  as  necessary  at  times 
as  it  is  in  the  home.  It  is  a  hard  subject  about  which  to 
give  advice.  Each  teacher  must  work  out  the  problem  for 
herself.  Of  course  a  teacher  will  not  resort  to  corporal 
punishment  except  as  a  last  resort,  and  then  she  will  use 
common  sense.  It  is  necessary  to  make  this  statement, 
because  some  teachers  appear  to  lose  control  of  themselves, 
using  unnatural  modes  of  punishment,  which  are  never 
conducive  to  any  good. 

The  assignment  of  lessons  is  an  art  that  every  teacher 
ought  to  practice.  We  sometimes  fail  to  realize  how  much 
time  is  wasted  on  account  of  indefinite  directions  and  assign- 
ments. Older  students  should  be  required  to  keep  small 
notebooks  containing  the  assignments  of  the  lessons.  The 
teacher  who  carefully  presents  the  new  ideas  of  a  lesson  in 
advance  seldom  has  to  take  subsequent  time  that  should 
be  used  by  the  pupils  in  the  recitation.  Some  teachers 
merely  hear  the  recitation;  others  direct  and  electrify  it. 
We  sometimes  learn  the  principles  of  pedagogy  and  then 


SCHOOL  MANAGEMENT  75 

fail  utterly  to  apply  them.  Do  we  not  too  often  assign  so 
many  pages  from  the  book  rather  than  a  lesson  that  applies 
to  pedagogic  principles?  We  learn  to  "proceed  from  the 
known  to  the  unknown,"  and  then  sometimes  assign  a 
lesson  so  foreign  to  anything  that  has  been  learned,  that  the 
students  flounder  hopelessly.  About  nine  tenths  of  the 
subject  matter  taught  is  old  and  one  tenth  new.  The  new 
must  be  developed  directly  from  the  old. 

Many  students  do  not  know  how  to  study,  and  waste 
time  on  account  of  inability  to  apply  themselves  to  their 
work.  It  is  not  wholly  the  amount  of  time  a  student  spends 
on  his  lessons  that  counts,  but  the  intensity  of  study.  That 
interest  that  will  go  home  with  a  student  often  prevents 
frivolous  diversion  and  leads  to  further  study  and  better 
preparation  of  lessons.  The  subject  of  home  tasks  has  been 
discussed  in  some  of  the  leading  magazines  recently.  There 
would  seem  to  be  no  good  reason  why  a  certain  amount  of 
outside  work  might  not  be  required.  There  is  not  always 
time  in  school  to  get  all  the  advanced  work  thoroughly. 
On  the  other  hand,  too  much  home  work  has  often  been 
expected.  Children  of  the  primary  and  intermediate  divi- 
sions should  complete  their  work  in  school. 

Examinations  should  be  given  in  the  advanced  classes 
once  a  month  or  once  in  six  weeks,  depending  upon  how 
often  the  report  cards  are  sent  out.  An  occasional  written 
lesson,  or  test,  may  be  given  in  the  intermediate  work,  but 
no  examinations  ought  to  be  held  in  the  first  three  years. 
When  examinations  are  required,  they  should  mean  some- 
thing. The  practice  of  giving  written  lessons  with  no 
thought  of  carefully  reading  and  correcting  the  papers 
cannot  be  too  strongly  condemned.  In  computing  the 
marks  for  report  cards  and  records  it  is  customary  to  have 
the  regular  daily  work  for  the  month  count  as  two  thirds 


76  RURAL  EDUCATION 

and  the  examination  as  one  third  of  the  final  mark.  Letters 
are  more  commonly  used  than  figures  for  marking,  and  are 
undoubtedly  better.  A  scale  sometimes  used  is  F,  P,  P+, 
and  P++,  in  which  F  means  fail,  P,  pass,  P+,  passed  with 
credit,  P+4-  passed  with  honor.  In  figures  they  would 
express  marks  ranging  below  75%  for  F.,  75%  to  80%  for 
P,  80%  to  90%  for  P+,  and  anything  above  90%  for  P++. 

Finally,  the  teacher  should  so  manage  her  school  that 
the  students  will  like  to  be  there.  School  can  be  made  so 
attractive  and  interesting  that  students  will  go  there  rather 
than  stay  away. 

Do  just  a  little  more  than  is  expected  of  you.  Master 
the  course  of  study  you  are  to  use;  have  a  program  and 
follow  it;  and  make  your  school  a  business  establishment  of 
which  you  are  the  manager.  Pleasure  and  success  will 
then  follow  for  all  who  are  interested  in  the  school. 


CHAPTER  VII 
THE  COURSE  OF  STUDY 

For  generations  the  three  R's  have  been  regarded  as 
the  backbone  of  elementary  education.  They  need  emphasis 
as  much  to-day  as  ever.  But  civilization  has  become  so 
complex  even  in  the  country  that  something  more  than 
these  is  now  necessary  for  the  fundamentals  of  education. 

The  pioneer  farmer  broke  up  his  land  with  oxen,  sowed 
his  grain  by  hand,  and  harvested  it  with  a  cradle.  He  built 
his  log  house  and  plastered  the  cracks  with  mud.  The  open 
fire  place  with  its  logs  constituted  the  heating  plant.  The 
holes  here  and  there  through  the  roof  and  the  cracks  from 
which  the  dried  mud  had  fallen  made  ventilation  unneces- 
sary. The  meals  were  cooked  in  a  few  simple  utensils  hung 
over  the  fire  place,  and  housekeeping  was  primitive.  This 
was,  indeed,  the  simple  life.  It  was  not  an  easy  life,  for, 
literally,  the  sweat  of  the  face  earned  the  daily  bread,  but 
the  mental  energy  of  modern  rural  life  was  not  required. 

Country  life  has  changed.  We  sometimes  hear  that  the 
good  old  days  were  better  than  the  present,  but  probably 
few  would  return  to  them  if  the  opportunity  presented  itself. 
But  the  pioneer  civilization  of  half  a  century  ago  has  gone 
never  to  return.  The  farmer  can  no  longer  get  a  quarter 
or  half  section  of  land  for  the  asking.  The  same  land  that 
cost  but  a  few  dollars  in  the  early  days  will  now  sell  for 
thousands,  much  of  it  being  worth  more  than  one  hundred 
dollars  an  acre.  With  this  change  in  land  values  comes  the 
necessity  for  more  capital.  The  factors  of  production  are 
land,  labor,  and  capital,  and  the  amount  of  mental  energy 
might  be  said  to  vary  directly  as  the  amount  of  capital  used. 
That  is,  the  more  money  needed  to  carry  on  the  business, 

77 


78  RURAL  EDUCATION 

the  more  head  work  is  necessary  to  make  it  successful.  We 
hear  much  of  the  education  of  the  hand  in  these  days,  and 
rightly  so,  but  it  is  often  forgotten  that  there  must  be  the 
education  of  the  head  to  direct  the  hand  in  its  more  complex 
work.  It  took  some  head  work  to  direct  the  hand  in  the 
use  of  the  cradle  and  flail  in  primitive  harvesting  and  thresh- 
ing, but  it  takes  more  to  direct  these  same  hands  to  operate 
a  modern  harvester  and  threshing  machine. 

Modern  farming  is  a  complicated  business.  In  scope  it 
is  similar  to  a  department  store.  In  such  a  store  the  general 
manager  must  see  that  each  department  shows  a  profit  at 
the  end  of  the  year,  if  that  department  is  to  be  continued. 
The  same  business  principles  must  be  applied  to  the  farm, 
if  it  is  to  be  successful.  The  farmer  must  know  that  diversi- 
fied farming  is  necessary  to  keep  up  the  fertility  of  the  soil. 
The  soils  of  the  old  countries  have  been  tilled  for  centuries 
— some  of  them  for  thousands  of  years,  and  they  are  more 
fertile  to-day  than  many  of  ours.  We  are  j  ust  beginning  to 
realize,  as  a  nation,  that  grains  and  grasses  and  cattle  and 
hogs  do  not  grow  from  air  and  water,  and  that  in  the  last 
analysis  all  are  produced  from  the  fertility  in  the  soil.  This 
fertility  the  American  farmer  has  been  slowly  mining  since 
the  lands  were  first  cultivated,  and  these  farm  mines  will 
some  day  just  as  surely  become  exhausted,  as  the  supplies 
of  coal  and  iron  or  any  other  mine  in  the  country,  unless 
fertility  is  in  some  manner  restored  to  them.  The  great 
resources  locked  up  in  the  soil  are  as  truly  a  fund  in  trust 
for  future  generations  as  are  the  school  funds  guarded  by 
the  state  constitutions,  and  the  individual  who  misuses  the 
one  is  as  morally  guilty  of  wrong  as  the  official  who  appro- 
priates the  other.  The  present  generation  is  entitled  to  a 
just  share  of  both,  but  in  getting  this,  it  is  not  necessary  to 
imperil  future  generations. 


THE  COURSE  OF  STUDY  79 

Soil  fertility  can  be  maintained  by  proper  crop  rotation 
and  by  returning  the  crops  to  the  soil  instead  of  selling  them. 
In  the  days  of  exclusive  grain  cropping  the  straw  was  burned 
after  threshing  and  nothing  whatever  was  returned  to  the 
soil.  As  stock  was  added,  the  crops  were  more  and  more 
fed  on  the  farm  and  the  barnyard  manure  returned  to  the 
soil.  Many  farmers,  even  yet,  do  not  seem  to  realize  that 
this  is  worth  from  two  to  three  dollars  a  load,  if  properly 
applied  to  the  land.  Even  commercial  fertilizers  are  often 
profitable.  On  a  recent  trip  to  Florida  I  became  very  much 
interested  in  the  methods  of  a  successful  farmer  who  told 
me  that  he  was  only  a  "  Georgia  cracker"  and  had  moved 
to  Florida  some  years  before.  He  stated  that,  on  account 
of  his  lack  of  education,  he  could  not  do  as  well  as  he  other- 
wise might  have  done.  Most  of  his  soil  was  of  the  citrus 
variety,  sandy  and  light  colored.  The  uninitiated  North- 
erner would  say  it  was  not  worth  paying  taxes  to  keep  it 
up.  On  this  soil  I  found  he  was  putting  about  thirty  dollars' 
worth  of  commercial  fertilizer  annually,  and  from  it  receiv- 
ing an  average  of  five  hundred  dollars  a  year  in  grape  fruit 
and  oranges.  I  found  he  had  made  a  special  study  of 
fertilizers  and  that  his  soil  needed  a  certain  proportion  of 
phosphate  to  certain  other  proportions  of  something  else; 
also,  that  he  applied  one  kind  of  fertilizer  for  a  new  growth 
of  wood  on  his  trees,  and  another  kind  for  the  fruit  crop.  He 
showed  me  where  he  had  conducted  an  experiment  with 
two  acres  of  celery  land  on  a  low  corner  of  his  farm.  This, 
by  the  way,  was  black  soil  rich  in  humus.  On  one  acre  he 
had  put  no  fertilizer  that  year,  but,  because  it  was  already 
rich  from  previous  fertilization  and  proper  care,  he  sold 
twelve  hundred  dollars'  worth  of  celery.  On  another  he 
put  one  hundred  dollars'  worth  of  fertilizer  and  marketed 
two  thousand  dollars'  worth,  a  gain  of  eight  hundred  dollars 


80  RURAL  EDUCATION 

for  one  hundred  in  fertilizer.  The  local  bank  was  ready  to 
verify  these  figures.  This  farmer  was  merely  applying 
modern  business  principles  to  farming. 

The  modern  farmer,  in  order  to  conduct  his  business  in 
a  scientific  manner,  must  know  many  things  that  his  grand- 
father, in  the  same  work,  did  not  need  to  know.  As  shown 
above,  he  must  understand  the  soil,  and  will  need  at  least 
an  elementary  knowledge  of  soil  physics  and  chemistry. 
He  must  know  something  about  the  capillary  attraction  of 
water  and  how  to  conserve  the  moisture  in  the  soil;  have  a 
knowledge  of  drainage  and  how  to  sweeten  soil  that  has 
become  sour;  understand  the  principles  of  crop  rotation, 
and  be  able  to  apply  the  rotation  that  is  best  suited  to 
his  farm.  Plant  and  animal  life,  germination  of  seeds, 
purity  tests  for  grains  and  grasses,  feeding  rations  for  stock, 
animal  diseases,  principles  of  breeding,  and  a  working  knowl- 
edge of  machinery  and  implements,  are  all  subjects  with 
which  he  must  be  familiar.  A  study  of  weeds  and  their 
eradication,  and  better  methods  of  harvesting  and  caring 
for  crops,  will  prevent  the  tremendous  waste. 

The  farmer  must  be  somewhat  of  an  economist.  He 
must  watch  the  markets  and  know  when  to  sell;  he  must 
anticipate  the  needs  of  the  future  and  plan  his  crops  accord- 
ingly. For  instance,  if  the  wheat  market  is  glutted,  due  to 
to  an  abnormal  world  production,  and  cattle  and  hogs  are 
strong,  due  to  a  limited  supply,  he  should  plant  more  corn 
and  less  wheat.  Production  must  now  be  considered  from 
a  world,  and  not  a  local,  standpoint.  A  knowledge  of 
accounts  is  necessary  in  order  to  know  what  departments 
are  profitable  and  what  are  not.  There  are  probably  several 
1  'star  boarders"  among  the  herd.  A  record  sheet  and  the 
Babcock  tester  will  inform  the  farmer  when  to  call  the 
butcher.  The  corn  crop  may  pay  a  bigger  dividend  than 


THE  COURSE  OF  STUDY  81 

the  wheat  or  oats.  There  is  no  accurate  way  of  knowing 
this  without  a  system  of  records.  I  have  found  that  farmers 
do  not  keep  accounts  mainly  for  two  reasons.  They  think 
a  knowledge  of  bookkeeping  is  necessary  and  that  they  take 
too  much  time.  In  neither  respect  are  they  correct.  Simple 
accounts  sufficient  to  conduct  all  the  business  of  the  farm 
can  be  taught  to  children  in  the  country  school  as  part  of 
the  arithmetic  work,  and  correlated  with  agricultural  and  in- 
dustrial work.  A  few  ledger  cards,  or  a  single  book,  and  a 
few  printed  forms  are  all  that  is  necessary,  so  that  the  time 
element  will  become  a  negligible  factor.  An  average  of  ten 
or  fifteen  minutes  an  evening  will  keep  all  the  accounts 
necessary  to  make  farming  a  real  business,  and  this  time 
will  pay  larger  returns  than  any  other  part  of  the  day.  The 
business  farmer  must  know  the  money  markets  as  well  as 
the  crop  and  cattle  markets.  The  farmer,  just  as  any 
other  business  man,  needs  money  at  certain  times.  In 
some  sections  of  the  country  he  has  been  discriminated 
against  and  charged  exorbitant  rates  of  interest.  This  im- 
position has  been  partly,  at  least,  his  own  fault  for  lack  of 
business  principles. 

The  farmer's  wife  lives  in  a  different  environment  from 
that  of  her  grandmothers.  Just  as  the  conditions  of  the 
present  have  changed  the  methods  of  conducting  her  hus- 
band's business,  so  her  work  has  become  much  more  com- 
plex. Modern  housekeeping  is  a  highly  specialized  science. 
In  these  days  when  hired  help  is  so  scarce,  it  is  all  the  more 
necessary  that  the  housekeeper  be  efficient.  In  any  event 
she  must  know  in  order  to  direct.  A  thorough  knowledge 
of  cooking  necessitates  something  more  than  practice  in 
that  art,  and  homemaking  is  vastly  more  than  cooking. 
That  the  fundamental  principles  of  cooking  may  not  have 
been  learned  in  years  of  practice  is  often  too  evident  by  what 


82  RURAL  EDUCATION 

those  at  the  table  are  forced  to  eat.  This  ignorance  of 
scientific  food  selection  and  preparation  is  probably  not  true 
of  many  homes  from  which  our  teachers  come,  but  it  is, 
nevertheless,  so  true  of  a  great  many  homes  in  the  common 
walks  of  life  that  the  consequences  of  it  are  serious.  The 
relation  of  proper  food  to  the  mental  and  physical  efficiency 
of  the  individual  has  been  clearly  shown  by  scientists. 
Food  study  and  the  application  of  scientific  principles  to 
cookery  should  be  part  of  every  girl's  education. 

Sanitation  and  its  relation  to  disease  should  be  thoroughly 
understood.  Modern  heating,  lighting,  and  ventilation  re- 
quire special  intelligent  attention.  Carelessness  and  in- 
difference toward  the  little  things  of  the  home  often  greatly 
decrease  the  efficiency  of  the  management.  I  often  judge 
this  efficiency  by  what  I  call  the  three  cardinal  points  of 
good  housekeeping — the  condition  of  the  washbasin,  the 
singing  tea  kettle  and  the  well  regulated  fire  in  the  stove. 
The  clean  washbasin  indicates  a  clean  and  sanitary  home; 
the  kettle  of  water  ready  for  use  at  all  times  shows  thought- 
fulness,  and  that  time  will  not  be  wasted  in  that  home;  and, 
finally,  the  even  fire  will  not  waste  fuel,  nor  go  out  during 
meal  time.  It  shows  system.  With  these  three  virtues, 
sanitation,  thoughtfulness,  and  system,  backed  up  by  a 
scientific  knowledge  of  homemaking,  the  farm  home,  or 
any  other,  will  not  be  inefficient.  The  course  of  study  in 
the  schools  has  or  should  have  a  direct  bearing  on  the  things 
enumerated  above. 

A  well  rounded  education  is  necessary  for  both  the 
farmer  and  the  farmer's  wife,  if  the  suggestions  discussed  so 
far  in  this  chapter  are  to  be  realized.  I  have  merely  at- 
tempted to  show  wherein  the  three  R's  are  entirely  inade- 
quate to  meet  present  conditions.  The  course  of  study  in 
the  rural  schools  must  be  changed.  If  a  knowledge  of  the 


THE  COURSE  OF  STUDY  83 

things  previously  discussed  is  essential,  where  are  the  chil- 
dren to  get  this  training,  if  not  in  the  rural  schools?  There 
is  no  good  reason  why  it  cannot  be  given  even  in  the  one- 
room  school,  until  association  and  consolidation  of  schools 
provide  better  facilities.  It  is  true  that  the  rural  teacher 
must  be  especially  trained  for  the  new  duties,  as  discussed 
in  a  previous  chapter.  That  some  communities  are  indiffer- 
ent toward  a  rejuvenated  rural  school  only  proves  the  state- 
ment already  expressed,  that,  in  many  instances,  farmers 
are  not  alive  to  their  needs  and  opportunities.  The  rising 
generation  does  see  these  needs,  as  indicated  by  the  desire 
to  attend  short  courses,  and  in  other  ways  to  improve  them- 
selves and  their  environment. 

The  course  of  study  for  the  modern  rural  school  should, 
then,  so  present  each  subject  that  it  may  have  a  direct 
bearing  on  country  life.  The  course  must  be  different  from 
that  in  the  city  schools.  The  argument  that  the  country 
school  of  a  generation  ago  was  good  enough  for  me  and  it 
is  good  enough  for  the  country  boys  and  girls  of  to-day,  is 
not  only  inconsistent,  it  is  positively  silly.  Show  me  the 
person  who  makes  such  statements  in  your  community,  and 
I  will  show  you  a  "grouch"  or  a  miser.  Invariably  the  per- 
son who  is  opposed  to  better  schools  or  to  modernizing  the 
course  of  study  is  afraid  his  taxes  will  be  raised,  or  he  wants 
to  profit  from  the  labor  of  a  child  which  the  law  has  to 
protect  from  its  own  selfish  parent,  or  he  is  the  chronic 
"kicker"  of  the  district  and  is  opposed  to  anybody  or  any- 
thing that  stands  for  progress.  Such  a  person  is  jealous  of 
his  children,  if  they  get  an  education,  and  he  is  envious  of 
his  prosperous  neighbor.  We  teachers  should,  therefore, 
not  become  discouraged  when  progress  is  not  as  rapid  as  we 
should  like.  Reforms  are  not  made  in  a  day.  The  American 
rural  school  is  better  now  than  ever  before,  but  it  will  be 


84  RURAL  EDUCATION 

much  better.  Public  opinion  must,  however,  pave  the  way. 
The  subjects  taught  in  country  schools  should  be  about 
the  same  as  those  for  city  schools,  the  difference  being  in 
the  way  they  are  taught.  They  are  reading,  English  classics 
and  composition,  spelling,  writing,  music,  drawing,  geog- 
raphy, history,  arithmetic,  civics,  or  citizenship,  agricul- 
ture, industrial  work,  including  the  use  of  tools  and  simple 
bench  work  for  the  boys,  and  plain  sewing  for  the  girls,  and 
a  study  of  foods  and  nutrition  in  connection  with  the  serv- 
ing of  hot  lunches  at  noon.  These  subjects  are  all  discussed 
quite  fully  in  the  chapters  that  follow.  We  need  to  tear 
down  some  of  the  traditional  barriers  that  stand  in  the  way 
of  the  progress  we  should  make  in  many  of  these  subjects. 
Students  stammer  and  stumble  along  in  reading  in  the  upper 
classes,  when  they  can  be  taught  to  become  independent 
and  read  anything  in  three  or  four  years.  Likewise  children 
leave  school  without  a  working  knowledge  of  arithmetic, 
mainly  because  they  and  their  teachers  have  been  flounder- 
ing around  in  a  labyrinth  of  numbers  without  getting  any- 
where. The  seventy-two  mental  processes  of  arithmetic 
are  purely  mechanical  and  can  and  should  be  mastered  dur- 
ing the  drill  age  of  the  child  in  the  intermediate  years  of 
school.  The  application  of  these  to — to  what?  not  to  the 
exercises  of  the  textbook,  but  to  the  problems  of  life,  best 
expressed  in  schools  through  the  industrial  work,  is  the  busi- 
ness of  the  last  years  in  the  elementary  school.  Accounts 
with  actual  records  from  home  should  be  part  of  this  work. 
Egg  and  milk  statistics  are  always  available  for  records.  In 
short,  there  is  little  excuse  for  a  person's  leaving  school 
without  a  knowledge  of  all  that  he  will  need  in  arithmetic, 
and  it  does  not  need  seven  or  eight  years  for  the  acquisition. 
Children  are  taught  to  waste  too  much  time  in  school. 
Eliminate  the  non-essentials  and  four  or  five  years  of  arith- 


THE  COURSE  OF  STUDY  85 

metic  well  taught  should  make  the  student  proficient.  Not 
one  girl  in  twenty-five,  for  example,  will  ever  have  as  much 
direct  use  for  arithmetic  as  she  will  have  for  cooking  and 
sewing,  and  yet  when  we  attempt  to  apply  this  very  subject 
to  these  things,  some  ignorant  person  sounds  the  alarm 
that  fads  are  being  taught  in  the  schools.  "O  consistency, 
thou  art  a  jewel!"  The  same  might  be  said  of  the  boys  in 
relation  to  their  manual  training. 

The  county  superintendent,  superintendent  of  a  system 
of  associated  schools,  or  the  principal  of  a  consolidated 
school  should  formulate  a  uniform  course  of  study  for  his 
particular  unit.  I  do  not  believe  a  uniform  course  for  the 
state  is  wise,  except  where  it  is  merely  suggestive,  as  the 
conditions  may  be  very  different.  Agriculture  does  not 
need  emphasis  in  a  lumbering  or  mining  region.  I  would 
not  be  misunderstood  in  this.  I  am  anything  but  a  fatalist, 
and  do  not  believe  every  farmer's  children  should  stay  on 
the  farm,  nor  that  any  other  child  should  necessarilly  follow 
the  occupation  of  his  father.  Fortunately  for  society,  there 
is  no  caste  in  America,  but  the  fact  remains  that  children 
are  likely  to  follow  the  occupation  of  the  parent,  and,  con- 
sequently, the  schools  should  reflect  predominantly  the  in- 
dustries of  the  community  in  which  they  are  situated. 

Teachers'  meetings  should  be  called  frequently  by  the 
person  in  charge  of  the  rural  schools  to  discuss  the  course 
of  study.  Teachers,  as  a  rule,  are  not  as  familiar  as  they 
ought  to  be  with  what  they  should  teach.  Young  teachers 
cannot  be  expected  to  be  familiar  enough  with  the  needs  of 
the  community  to  formulate  the  course  of  study,  but  they 
should  be  held  responsible  for  carrying  it  out  to  the  best  of 
their  ability.  If  the  public  could  only  realize  the  time  and 
energy  that  are  wasted  by  teachers  and  students  in  many 
schools,  because  there  is  nothing  definite  to  follow — no  course 


86  RURAL  EDUCATION 

of  study,  toleration  would  cease.  Physical  inefficiency  is 
easily  seen;  mental  inefficiency  should  be  seen,  but  often  is 
not.  It  is  not  the  fault  of  the  teacher,  when  results  are  not 
what  they  should  be,  if  she  has  nothing  definite  in  each  sub- 
ject to  follow.  It  is  her  fault,  if  she  has  a  course  and  does 
not  follow  it. 

The  various  outlines  for  the  subjects  of  the  course  of 
study  given  in  this  book  are  based  upon  the  Three  Divi- 
sion Plan  now  used  in  the  associated  rural  schools  under  the 
supervision  of  the  author.  This  plan  provides  for  seven 
years'  work.  The  eighth  year  work  is  not  offered  except 
in  the  semi-graded  schools  of  two  rooms,  as  the  students 
enter  the  Junior  High  School  department  of  the  central 
school  for  that  work.  In  any  event,  I  doubt  the  advisibility 
of  any  teacher's  attempting  to  teach  eight  "grades"  in  a 
country  school.  We  would  not  think  of  doing  so  in  town, 
even  if  the  numbers  were  small  enough.  I  know  more  than 
one  town  school  where  three  teachers  do  not  have  as  many 
students  combined  as  one  teacher  has  in  the  country. 

The  First  Division  work  is  for  the  students  of  the  first 
three  years.  There  should  be  three  classes  in  this  division, 
but  in  some  subjects  they  recite  together.  The  Second 
Division  is  the  work  of  the  fourth  and  fifth  years.  They 
should  recite  at  the  same  time  in  every  subject  and  be  com- 
bined in  some  subjects.  The  Third  Division  constitutes  the 
work  of  the  sixth  and  seventh  years.  These  two  classes 
should  be  combined  in  every  subject.  A  complete  discus- 
sion of  just  how  this  plan  works  out  is  found  in  the  next 
chapter  on  The  Daily  Program,  and  in  the  discussion  of 
each  of  the  academic  and  industrial  subjects  to  be  taught. 
I  wish  to  say  that  every  suggestion  made  in  the  program 
and  the  courses  that  follow  are  based  on  actual  experience 
in  the  classroom  and  not  on  theory  alone.  The  object  of 


THE  COURSE  OF  STUDY  87 

grouping  and  alternating  is  to  save  time  and  to  get  the 
maximum  efficiency  out  of  each  student  for  the  number  of 
classes  and  subjects  that  have  to  be  managed  by  one  teacher. 
The  author  claims  little  originality  for  this  organization,, 
except  as  he  has  applied  the  principles  of  combination  and 
alternation  of  classes  to  the  three  divisions  as  stated  above. 
Wisconsin,  Illinois,  and,  just  recently,  Massachusetts,  have 
applied  these  principles  in  their  rural  schools. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
THE  DAILY  PROGRAM 

At  the  outset  I  wish  to  state  that  the  Three  Division 
Program  given  is  the  one  suggested  for  a  one-room  rural 
school.  It  has  been  planned  with  the  aid  and  advice  of 
hundreds  of  teachers  with  whom  the  author,  during  the 
last  few  years,  has  had  the  pleasure  of  discussing  school 
management  and  methods  in  summer  schools,  and  it  has 
been  revised  from  time  to  time  on  account  of  valuable  sug- 
gestions from  those  who  have  observed  it  in  the  schoolroom. 

A  careful  study  of  the  daily  programs  used  by  the  teach- 
ers attending  the  summer  session  to  which  reference  has 
been  made  revealed  several  interesting  facts.  In  the  first 
place  practically  all  provided  for  a  graded  school,  patterned 
after  the  school  in  the  town  where  the  teacher  had  attended. 
These  grades  ranged  in  number  from  three  to  ten,  and  in  a 
few  instances  there  were  two  classes  in  a  grade.  A  sub- 
first  grade,  or  chart  class,  corresponding  to  the  kindergarten 
of  the  city  schools,  was  found  in  many  of  the  programs. 
The  number  of  recitations  daily  ranged  from  fifteen  to  fifty- 
six,  the  former  being  for  a  school  with  only  three  grades. 
As  far  as  we  were  able  to  determine,  there  was  little  or  no 
attempt  to  make  the  program,  or  the  course  of  study,  uni- 
form in  the  counties  represented  by  the  teachers  present. 
A  few  schools  were  attempting  to  do  some  so-called  high 
school  work.  While  the  program  with  fifty-six  recitations 
was  an  extreme  case,  the  average  number  was  nearly  thirty 
a  day.  Allowing  a  minute  for  calling  and  dismissing  each 
class,  it  is  evident  that  the  recitation  period  is  cut  down  to 
so  little  time  that  the  best  teacher  could  not  accomplish 
much.  In  the  extreme  case  the  time  is  less  than  five  min- 

88 


THE  DAILY  PROGRAM  89 

utes  for  each  recitation,  and  averages  only  ten  minutes  per 
recitation  with  the  thirty.  Every  program  providing  for 
eight  full  grades,  showed  that  the  upper  classes  received  more 
than  their  share  of  time,  and  that  the  lower  classes  suffered. 

The  legitimate  mechanics  of  the  schoolroom  will  take 
considerable  time  during  the  day.  Often  more  time  than  is 
necessary  is  used  in  requiring  certain  formal  directions  to 
be  carried  out.  Classes  should  pass  orderly  but  quickly  to 
and  from  their  recitations.  The  teacher  requires  some  time 
to  assign  the  lessons  and  present  new  work.  Time  is  needed 
to  give  and  inspect  the  seat  work.  Imagine  a  teacher  who 
can  do  all  this,  and  more  that  will  present  itself  during  the 
day,  and  have  only  an  average  of  five  minutes  for  the  reci- 
tations. Practically  all  the  time  is  wasted,  as  the  teacher 
who  had  this  program  admitted,  but  she  defended  herself 
by  stating  that  it  wras  the  program  left  in  the  schoolroom 
and  she  supposed  she  was  to  follow  it.  So  much  the  worse; 
for  the  pupils  had  been  kept  in  this  high  strung  state  of 
rapid-fire  recitations  for  two  years,  at  least.  The  school 
had  a  new  teacher  each  year,  and  the  wonder  is  that  she 
lasted  a  year.  That  any  program  with  thirty  or  more  reci- 
tations a  day,  and  only  one  teacher,  is  undesirable,  will  be 
admitted  by  all.  In  order  to  manage  seven  or  eight  grades, 
and  keep  the  classes  separate,  it  is  necessary  to  have  at 
least  that  many  recitations.  The  question  arises,  which  is 
better,  to  have  thirty  or  forty  single  recitations  with  little 
time,  or  combine  some  of  the  classes,  and  have  more  time 
for  each  class?  After  experimenting  with  numerous  classes 
in  various  ways,  I  am  convinced  that  the  longer  recitation 
with  combined  classes  is  by  far  the  better  plan. 

Combination  and  alternation  are  the  only  methods  by 
which  we  can  gain  more  time  for  the  recitation.  By  com- 
bination in  this  program  we  mean  two  things.  First,  cer- 


90  RURAL  EDUCATION 

tain  classes  are  combined  to  form  a  division,  the  classes  of 
the  division  reciting  at  the  same  time,  but  not  together. 
For  example,  the  fourth  and  fifth-year  students  form  the 
Second  Division,  and  the  two  arithmetic  classes  of  this 
division  recite  from  nine  forty  to  ten  o'clock.  They  recite 
at  the  same  time,  but  are  doing  different  work.  Second, 
certain  other  classes  are  combined  and  are  doing  the  same 
work,  as,  for  example,  the  classes  of  the  Third  Division.  By 
alternation  is  meant  that  a  certain  subject,  or  part  of  a  subject, 
is  offered  one  year,  and  another  subject,  or  the  other  part  of 
a  subject,  alternates  with  it  and  is  offered  the  next  year. 
Geography  alternates  with  history  in  the  Third  Division, 
and  half  of  the  books  in  reading  for  this  division  are  read 
one  year,  and  the  other  half  the  next  year,  the  classes  recit- 
ing together. 

The  advantage  of  such  a  program  over  one  with  five  and 
ten-minute  recitations  is  evident.  While  there  are  some 
disadvantages  in  combining  classes  and  alternating  the 
work,  they  are  minor  compared  with  the  results  that  can 
be  obtained  by  an  efficient  teacher.  The  Three  Division 
Program  provides  for  twelve  regular  recitations  daily, 
besides  a  ten-minute  drill  in  phonics,  a  five-minute  drill  in 
mental  arithmetic,  and  a  general  period  of  one  hour. 

A  study  program  should  always  be  provided.  It  did  not 
appear  in  most  of  the  programs  discussed  in  the  summer 
schools,  showing  that  a  study  program  is  not  commonly 
arranged  for  the  pupils.  It  follows,  then,  that  in  many 
cases  the  teacher,  does  not  know  what  the  pupil  is  study- 
ing while  she  is  conducting  a  recitation.  He  is  left  to  him- 
self to  "begin  anywhere,  and  he  will  usually  arrive  no- 
where" at  the  end  of  the  study  period.  The  question  as  to 
whether  a  study  period  should  precede  or  follow  a  recita- 
tion is  often  discussed.  For  the  lower  classes  there  is  an 


THE  DAILY  PROGRAM  91 

advantage  in  having  the  study  period  after  the  recitation, 
as  the  seat  work  can  then  be  based  upon  the  work  of  the 
recitation.  In  the  upper  classes  it  would  seem  best  to 
reverse  the  order,  thus  giving  the  student  an  opportunity 
to  have  any  troublesome  points  cleared  up  during  the  reci- 
tation. It  is  not  always  possible  to  arrange  the  periods  in 
this  order,  however. 

The  Three  Division  Program  shown  on  page  98,  as 
already  intimated,  makes  provision  for  seven  years'  work  in 
the  rural  school.  Those  who  object  to  only  seven  years 
should  remember  that  most  of  the  country  pupils  never 
complete  that  many  grades,  and  those  that  do  are  the  very 
ones  that  will  be  going  to  a  village  school,  where  they  will 
get  much  more  out  of  the  eighth  grade  than  they  could 
possibly  get  in  the  rural  school.  Seven  years'  work  can  be 
better  done  than  eight.  That  is,  the  student  should  be 
better  prepared  after  seven  years  with  twenty-minute  reci- 
tations as  provided  in  a  division  plan  program,  than  with 
eight  years  of  ten  or  fifteen-minute  periods  in  a  program 
where  combinations  are  not  made.  There  is  no  question 
that  the  elementary  work  now  done  in  eight  years  in  town 
or  country  can  be  done  in  six  years  and  with  greater 
efficiency  under  a  properly  rearranged  plan.  The  success 
of  such  a  program  will  depend  entirely  upon  the  teacher. 
I  know  of  no  plan  that  will  show  up  the  weakness  of  a 
teacher,  as  the  Three  Division  Program.  She  must  be  sys- 
tematic and  alert  from  nine  o'clock  to  four. 

An  analysis  of  the  program  will  show  a  ten-minute 
period  for  opening  exercises.  These  may  be  varied  with 
Music,  Current  Events  and  talks  on  Hygiene.  Primary 
reading  is  allowed  twenty  minutes.  At  first  it  is  best  to 
have  the  first  year  class  by  itself.  Do  not  have  a  class 
below  this,  as  it  is  a  waste  of  time  in  a  rural  school.  The 


92  RURAL  EDUCATION 

second  and  third  year  pupils  may  recite  at  the  same  time 
from  the  start,  and,  after  the  first  third  of  the  year,  the 
entire  First  Division  reading  may  be  conducted  at  once. 
These  classes  are  usually  small,  averaging  but  three  or  four 
in  a  class.  The  "endless  chain"  method  of  conducting  the 
primary  reading  is  discussed  in  the  next  chapter  for  those 
who  are  not  familiar  with  it.  Reading  has  been  arranged 
first  in  the  primary  work,  because  it  is  the  most  important 
subject  for  that  division.  Arithmetic  is  placed  first  in  the 
other  two  divisions  for  the  same  reason.  In  the  Second 
Division  arithmetic,  the  two  classes  are  called  at  the  same 
time,  but  the  work  is  different.  While  the  new  lesson  is 
being  presented  to  one  class  of  this  division,  the  other  class 
may  be  working  at  the  board  under  the  direction  of  the 
teacher.  They  then  exchange  places  and  the  other  class 
receives  instruction  in  the  advanced  lesson.  In  this  way 
the  teacher  has  each  individual  under  her  direction  for 
twice  the  time  she  could  give  him,  if  the  classes  recited  at 
different  times.  In  the  Third  Division  arithmetic,  the 
classes  take  the  same  work,  doing  one  half  of  the  two-year 
course  one  year,  and  the  other  half  the  next  year.  Students 
of  the  sixth  and  seventh  years  should  find  no  difficulty  in 
working  together  in  this  manner.  A  ten-minute  phonics 
period  for  the  entire  First  Division  is  recommended.  While 
this  work  will  be  review  for  the  second  and  third  year  stu- 
dents, it  will  undoubtedly  be  needed. 

If  the  recess  period  is  supervised  as  suggested  in  Chapter 
IV,  the  ten  minutes  should  be  conducive  to  more  good  than 
the  ordinary  fifteen-minute  intermission.  In  case  it  is  desir- 
able to  take  five  minutes  more,  it  would  be  wise  to  take  it 
from  the  First  Division  Literature  and  Language  period 
rather  than  from  any  other  of  the  morning  session.  The 
oral  arithmetic,  though  only  of  five  minutes'  duration,  can 


THE  DAILY  PROGRAM  93 

be  made  a  great  help  to  the  work  in  arithmetic,  and  should 
not  be  omitted.  The  teacher  should  have  a  copy  of  some 
good  oral  text  for  reference.  The  work  in  literature  may  be 
made  very  interesting,  if  stories  are  told  or  read  by  the 
teacher.  A  suggestive  list  of  selections  worth  memorizing 
is  given  in  Chapter  X.  Some  of  these  should  be  available 
in  the  library.  The  reading  of  the  second  and  third  divi- 
sion follows  in  order,  the  two  classes  of  each  division  reciting 
together.  Since  these  are  twenty-minute  periods,  several 
books  can  be  read  during. the  year.  Ample  time  is  given 
for  studying  reading  to  warrant  good  recitation  work,  if 
the  students  understand  phonics  and  the  use  of  the  dic- 
tionary. Ten  minutes  daily  will  suffice  for  written  spelling, 
if  conducted  as  suggested  under  that  subject  in  Chapter 
XI.  The  written  lesson  is  supplemented  by  a  twenty- 
minute  oral  review  once  a  week.  The  five  minutes  allowed 
in  preparation  for  luncheon  may  be  used  whether  the  hot 
lunch  is  served  or  not.  During  the  warm  days  of  the  fall 
and  spring,  the  noon  lunch  would  probably  be  enjoyed 
more  on  the  lawn  outside,  if  there  is  suitable  shade  and 
grass.  Following  this  the  teacher  should  spend  the  noon 
hour  in  games  with  the  children.  Chapter  IV  gives  sug- 
gestions for  this  feature  of  school  life. 

The  First  Division  numbers  are  given  while  the  children 
are  fresh  from  the  noon  exercises.  The  second  and  third 
year  students  can  be  combined.  Give  few  or  no  numbers 
in  the  first  year,  except  as  they  may  be  combined  with 
industrial  work.  Second  Division  geography  is  given  twenty 
minutes,  and  classes  recite  together.  In  the  Third  Division 
the  geography  alternates  with  history,  as  discussed  in 
Chapter  XII,  every  other  year  or  semester  as  seems  most 
desirable.  Students  are  given  two  periods  in  which  to 
study  this  subject  in  the  advanced  division,  and  they  should 


94  RURAL  EDUCATION 

be  able  to  do  considerable  supplementary  reading.  First 
Division  reading  follows  for  twenty  minutes.  The  after- 
noon recess  is  also  supervised.  Better  have  no  recess, 
unless  the  teacher  can  be  on  the  playgrounds  with  the 
pupils  at  least  often  enough  to  supervise  the  play.  The 
language  of  the  Second  Division  includes  memory  selec- 
tions from  literature  and  textbook  work. 

The  general  period  of  one  hour  is  coming  more  and 
more  into  common  use.  It  affords  an  excellent  means  of 
providing  for  those  subjects  that  cannot  be  offered  every 
day.  The  plan  in  the  Three  Division  Program  provides 
for  writing  three  times,  group  reading  twice  a  week,  oral 
spelling  once  a  week,  and  Third  Division  language  three 
times  a  week,  with  twenty-minute  recitations  for  each 
subject.  In  addition  to  the  recitation  work  in  language, 
this  division  has  a  twenty-minute  period  daily  for  language 
work  in  industrial  booklets.  It  will  be  noticed  that  two 
hours  a  week  are  allowed  for  the  industrial  work  of  the 
school.  This  is  little  enough  time;  but,  if  suitable  materials 
are  on  hand,  much  progress  can  be  made  during  the  year. 
The  First  Division  should  remain  for  the  writing  period, 
but  may  be  dismissed  for  the  other  periods,  if  desired. 

The  study  periods  of  this  program  should  be. carefully 
examined.  The  seat  work  of  the  First  Division  is  very 
important.  It  should  be  based  on  reading  in  the  morning, 
and  on  language  during  the  session  between  recess  and 
noon.  Afternoon  number  work  and  industrial  work  should 
occupy  the  attention  of  those  who  remain  in  the  seats.  The 
second  and  third  year  students  should  have  regular  study 
periods  for  reading.  Do  not  let  the  seat  work  degenerate 
into  "busy  work,"  as  it  always  will,  if  there  is  no  definite 
purpose  in  the  mind  of  the  teacher  when  she  assigns  the 
work.  Chapter  XV  gives  suggestions  for  the  study  periods. 


THE  DAILY  PROGRAM  95 

See  that  the  older  students  learn  how  to  study,  so  they  may 
use  these  periods  to  the  best  advantage. 

It  is  suggested  that  the  reader  keep  the  page  open  to 
the  Three  Division  Program  while  reading  the  above  dis- 
cussion of  it,  as  in  this  way  it  may  be  the  more  easily  under- 
stood. The  other  programs  are  not  discussed  in  detail,  as 
they  can  be  understood  from  the  tabulations.  The  Four 
Division  Program  provides  for  two  classes  in  each  division, 
in  a  school  with  only  one  teacher.  The  others  are  for  a  two- 
room  or  semi-graded  school  with  two  teachers.  As  already 
stated,  the  author  prefers  the  Three  Division  Program  for 
the  average  rural  school,  as  it  is  the  most  effective,  if  pro- 
perly managed. 


96 


RURAL  EDUCATION 


THREE  DIVISION  PROGRAM 


Time 

First  Division 
(1-3  yrs.) 

Second  Division 
(4-5  yrs.) 

Third  Division 
(6-7  yrs.) 

9:00-  9:10 

Opening  Exercises  (Songs,  Current  Events,  Hygiene,  etc.) 

9:10-  9:40 

Reading  a  b  c 

Arithmetic 

Arithmetic 

9:40-10:00 

Seat  Work 

Arithmetic 

Language 

10:00-10:20 

Seat  Work 

Reading 

Arithmetic 

10:20-10:30 

Phonics 

Reading                             !    Reading 

10:30-10:40 

Recess  (Supervised) 

10:40-10:45 

Oral  Arithmetic 

10:45-11:05 

Literature  and 
Language 

Spelling 

Spelling 

11:05-11:25 

Seat  Work 

Reading 

Reading 

11:25-11:45 

Seat  Work 

General  History 
Stories 

Reading 

11:45-11:55 

Written  Spelling 

11:55-12:00 

Preparation  for  Luncheon 

12:00-12:20 

Luncheon 

12:20-  1:00 

Games  (Supervised) 

1:00-  1:30 

Numbers 

Geography 

Geography  or  History 

1:30-   1:50 

Seat  Work 

Geography 

Geography  or  History 

1:50-  2:10 

Seat  Work 

Reading 

Geography  or  History 

2:10-  2:30 

Reading 

Industrial  Work 

Language 
Recess  (Supervised) 
Language 

Language 
Industrial  Booklets 

2:30-  2:40 

2:40-  3.00 

3:00-  3:20 

Muscular  Writing,  Monday   Tuesday  and  Thursday 

3:20-  3:40 

Dismissed 

Group  Reading,  Monday  and  Tuesday 

3:20-  3:40 

Oral  Spelling  every  Thursday 

3:40-  4:00 

Dismissed 

Industrial  Work 

Language,  Monday 
Tuesday,  Thursday 

3:00-  4:00[                            Industrial  Work,  Wednesday  and  Friday 

NOTE:  The  words  given  in  Italics  in  these  programs  represent  the  recita- 
tions; the  others  are  the  study  periods.  See  chapters  on  academic  work  for  dis- 
cussion of  each  subject  and  how  the  classes  are  managed. 


THE  DAILY  PROGRAM 


97 


FOUR  DIVISION  PROGRAM 

Time 

First  Division 
(  1-2  years) 

Second  Division 
(3-4  years) 

Third  Division 

(5-6  years) 

Fourth  Division 
(7-8  years) 

9:00-  9:10 

Opening   Exercises   (Songs,   Current   Events,   Hygiene,  etc.) 

9:10-  9:25 

Reading 

Reading 

Arithmetic 

Arithmetic 

9:25-  9:40 

Reading 

Reading 

Arithmetic 

Arithmetic 

9:40-10:00 

Seat  Work 

Seat  Work 

Arithmetic 

Language 

10:00-10:20 

Seat  Work 

Seat  Work 

Reading 

Arithmetic 

10:20-10:30 

Phonics 

Reading 

Reading 

10:30-10:40 

Recess   (Supervised) 

10:40-10:45 

Oral  Arithmetic 

10:45-11:00 

Language  and 
Literature 

Language  and 
Literature 

Spelling 

Spelling 

11:00-11:15 

Language  and 
Literature  • 

Language  and 
Literature 

Spelling 

Spelling 

11:15-11:30 

Seat  Work 

Seat  Work 

Reading 

Reading 

11:30-11:45 

Seat  Work 

Seat  Work 

Gen.  Hist.  Stories 

Reading 

11:45-11:55 

Written  Spelling 

11:55-12:00 

Preparation  for  Luncheon 

12:00-12:20 

Luncheon 

12:20-  1:00 

Games   (Supervised) 

1:00-  1:15 

Numbers 

Numbers 

Geography 

Geog.  or  Hist. 

1:15-  1:30 

Numbers 

Numbers 

Geography 

Geog.  or  Hist. 

1:30-  1:50 

Seat  Work 

Seat  Work 

Geography 

Geog.  or  Hist. 

1:50-  2:1C 

Reading 

Seat  Work 

Reading 

Geog.  or  Hist. 

2:10-  2:2C 

Reading 

Reading 

Language 

Language 

2:2Q-  2:30 

Seat  Work 

Reading 

Language 

Language 

2:30-  2:40 

Recess  (Supervised) 

2:40-  3:00 

Industrial  Work                                  Language                  Indust.  Book. 

3:00-  3:20 

Muscular  Writing,  Monday,  Tuesday  and  Thursday 

3:20-  3:40 

Dismissed 

Group  Reading,  Monday  and  Thursday 

3:20-  3:40 

Dismissed 

Oral  Spelling  every  Thursday 

3:40-  4:00 

Dismissed 

Industrial  Work 

Language  A/on., 
Tues.,  and  Thurs. 

3:00-  4:00                             Industrial  Work,  Wednesday  and  Friday 

7— 

98 


RURAL  EDUCATION 


SEMI-GRADED  PROGRAM  (Primary  Room) 


Time 

First  Division 
(1st  year) 

Second  Division 
(2nd  year) 

Third  Division 
(3-4  years) 

9:00-  9:15 

Opening  Exercises 

9:15-  9:35 

Reading 

Reading 

Reading 

9:35-  9:55 

Seat  Work 

Reading 

Reading 

9:55-10:15   Seat  Work 

Seat  Work 

Reading 

10:15-10:30 

Phonics 

Seat  Work                       :   Seat  Work 

10:30-10:40 

Recess  (Supervised) 

10:40-10:45 

Oral  Arithmetic 

10:45-11:05 

Language  and 
Literature 

Spelling 

Spelling 



11:05-11:25 

Seat  Work 

Literature 

Language  and 
Literature 

11:25-11:45 

Seat  Work 

Seat  Work 

Language  and 
Literature 

11:45-11:55 

Seat  Work 

Written  Spelling 

11:55-12:00 

Preparation  for  Luncheon 

12:00-12:20 

Luncheon 

12:20-  1:00 

Games  (Supervised) 

1:00-  1:20 

Reading 

Numbers 

Arithmetic 

1:20-  1:35 

Seat  Work 

Numbers 

Reading 



1:35-  1:55 

Seat  Work 

Seat  Work 

Arithmetic 

1:55-  2:10   Reading 

Reading 

Geography  or   History 

2:10-  2:30J  Seat  Work 

Reading 

Geography  or  History 

2.30-  2:40                                              Recess  (Supervised) 

2:40-  3 


:00' 


Industrial  Work 


Geography  or   History 
Stories 


3:00-  3:2( 


Muscular  Movement  Writing 


3:20-  3:40                                     Dismissed 

Oral  Spelling,  Mon- 
day, Tuesday  and 
Thursday. 

3:40-  4:00 

Dismissed 

Sight  Reading  Mon- 
day, Tuesday  and 
Thursday. 

3:20-  4:00 

Dismissed 

Industrial  Work  Wed- 
nesday and  Friday. 

THE  DAILY  PROGRAM 


99 


SEMI-GRADED  PROGRAM  (Upper  Room) 


Time 

First  Division 
(5th  year) 

Second  Division 
(6th  year) 

Third  Division 
(7-8  years) 

9:00-  9:15 

Opening  Exercises  • 

9:15-  9:35 

Reading 

Arithmetic 

Arithmetic 

9:35-10:00 

Reading 

Arithmetic 

Arithmetic 

10:00-10:30 

Arithmetic 

Reading 

Arithmetic 

10:30-10:40 

Recess  (Supervised) 

10:40-10:45 

Oral  Arithmetic 

10:45-11:05 

Arithmetic 

Language  and 
Literature 

Spelling 

11:05-11:25 

Language  and 
Literature 

Reading 

Reading 

11:25-11:45 

Spelling 

Spelling 

Reading 

11:45-11:55 

Written  Spelling 

11:55-12:00 

Preparation  for  Luncheon 

12:00-12:20 

Luncheon 

12:20-  1:00 

Games  (Supervised) 

1:00-  1:20 

Language  and 
Literature 

Geography 

Language  and 
Literature 

1:20-  1:45 

Reading 

Language  and 
Literature 

History  or  Geography 

1:45-  2:10 

Geography 

History  Stories 

History  or  Geography 

2:10-  2:30 

Geography 

Reading 

Reading 

2:30-  2:40 

Recess  (Supervised) 

2:40-  3:00 

Muscular  Writing 

3:00-  3:20 

History  Stories 
Mon.  and  Tues. 

History  Stories  or 
Geography 

Industrial  Booklets 

3:20-  3:40 

Reading  Thurs. 

Reading 

Language  and 
Literature 

3:40-  4:00 

Croup  Reading,  Monday  and  Tuesday 

3:40-  4:00 

Oral  Spelling  Every  Thursday 

3:00-  4:00 

Industrial  Work,  Wednesday  and  Friday 

CHAPTER  IX 
TEACHING  READING 

Undoubtedly  the  most  important  subject  for  the  first 
few  grades,  or  the  first  division  of  an  ungraded  school,  is 
reading.  Students  are  usually  good  or  poor  in  their  work 
in  the  upper  grades  in  proportion  to  their  ability  to  read. 
It  is  impossible  to  master  a  lesson  in  geography  or  history, 
or  to  solve  a  problem  in  arithmetic  without  being  a  fairly 
good  reader.  While  the  schools  as  a  whole  are  much  better 
than  they  have  ever  been,  it  will  be  admitted  by  those  who 
have  carefully  studied  the  situation,  that  the  average  school 
does  not  get  the  desired  results  in  reading,  especially  in  the 
rural  schools.  Rural  schoolteachers  are  generally  young 
and  comparatively  inexperienced.  They  recognize  the 
defects,  but  rarely  apply  a  remedy.  If  they  do  succeed 
in  making  conditions  better,  their  tenure  of  office  is  so  short 
that  the  improvement  is  often  merely  temporary.  In  my 
judgment  poor  reading  in  the  rural  schools  is  due  to  three 
chief  causes:  lack  of  phonics,  too  little  dictionary  work,  and 
not  enough  time  spent  in  reading. 

Phonics  teaching  is  absolutely  necessary,  if  the  child 
is  ever  to  become  self-reliant  in  reading.  The  plain  fact  is 
that  very  few  teachers  really  know  enough  about  phonics 
to  be  able  to  teach  reading  well.  This  statement  is  made 
advisedly  after  about  twelve  years  experience  in  supervising 
grade  and  rural  teachers.  It  is  the  exception  to  find  phonics 
on  the  program  of  a  country  school,  and  yet  it  is  as  impos- 
sible to  make  independent  readers  out  of  students  without 
phonics  as  it  would  be  to  have  them  solve  complex  problems 
without  having  the  fundamental  operations  in  arithmetic. 
It  cannot  be  expected  that  children  will  master  enough 

100 


TEACHING  READING  101 

"sight  words"  to  read  fluently,  and  the  experience  of  every 
teacher  will  show  that  they  do  not.  I  have  seen  upper 
grades  where  the  students  would  invariably  stumble  over 
the  reading  lesson,  and  primary  grades  where  every  child 
could  pick  up  a  newspaper  and  read  it  almost  as  fluently  as 
an  adult.  The  difference  was  in  the  teaching,  not  in  the 
children.  Any  teacher  who  is  worthy  of  the  name  can 
master  phonics,  if  she  is  but  willing  to  study  carefully  the 
manual  of  the  method  reader  she  is  using.  Afterwards  it 
will  not  be  difficult  to  teach  what  has  been  learned.  Prob- 
ably no  one  method  is  better  than  the  others.  Any  up- 
to-date  one  in  the  hands  of  a  good  teacher  will  secure  the 
desired  results. 

Dictionary  work,  and  plenty  of  it,  must  follow  the 
phonics.  By  the  time  the  student  has  entered  the  Second 
Division,  or  fourth  and  fifth  grades,  he  should  own  a  dic- 
tionary and  know  how  to  use  it. 

The  third  cause  of  poor  reading  enumerated  is  perhaps 
the  most  serious  of  all.  Observation  of  many  schools  would 
show  that,  even  if  the  mechanics  of  reading  were  mastered 
through  phonics  and  the  dictionary,  the  students  could 
not  become  forceful  readers  with  expression  in  the  time  they 
actually  read  in  school.  The  child  learns  to  read  by  reading, 
and  not  by  being  told  how  to  read.  The  following  instance, 
applicable  to  many  schools  in  both  village  and  country, 
illustrates  the  case.  A  class  of  thirty  students  in  an  inter- 
mediate grade  had  one  reading  period  of  thirty  minutes 
daily.  If  the  teacher  used  no  time  whatever,  there  would 
be  an  average  of  one  minute  each  for  the  pupils  to  read 
aloud.  Compute  this  for  the  entire  year  and  allow  for  no 
absences,  and  we  find  the  ridiculous  sum  of  three  hours. 
And  yet  we  sometimes  wonder  why  the  schools  turn  out 
poorer  readers  than  they  should.  The  students  may  recite 


102  RURAL  EDUCATION 

more  than  once  a  day,  but  after  the  teacher  has  used  all 
the  time  she  may  legitimately  take — she  often  uses  more — 
how  many  minutes  a  day  do  the  students  actually  read 
aloud?  Not  enough,  you  will  probably  agree;  but  how  is 
more  time  to  be  obtained?  Eliminate  numbers  and  some 
other  work,  except  incidentally,  in  the  first  year  and  part 
of  the  second.  Get  rid  of  the  waste  time  in  the  mechanics 
of  the  schoolroom.  Make  directions  short  and  to  the 
point.  "Read  the  next  little  story,  Mary."  "Be  sure  to 
tell  it  to  me  just  as  it  is."  "Are  you  sure  that  is  just  right?" 
"There,  that  is  better,  Mary,"  are  expressions  we  have  often 
heard  when  the  child  reads  one  line  of  half  a  dozen  words. 
To  waste  still  more  time,  the  pupil  is  asked  to  walk  several 
steps  to  the  teacher  and  back  again.  Just  what  principle  of 
pedagogy  such  teachers  have  in  mind,  I  have  never  been 
able  to  discover.  Others,  with  the  simple  direction,  "Next, 
Mary,"  will  get  a  half  page  read  in  the  same  time. 

Some  teachers  are  satisfied  with  having  a  class  read  two 
or  three  books  in  a  year.  The  author  can  remember  when 
one  book  was  all  that  his  class  was  expected  to  read.  Every 
spring  for  several  years  I  have  visited  a  certain  school  in 
Minnesota,  where  the  students  are  noted  for  good  reading. 
The  students  of  the  first  four  grades  average  reading  about 
thirty  books  a  year  in  school.  The  results  are  marvelous. 
I  have  never  seen  better  reading  anywhere.  These  teachers 
are  working  on  the  theory  that  the  child  learns  to  read  by 
reading,  and  they  are  not  only  getting  expression  that  can 
be  obtained  in  no  other  way,  but  a  wealth  of  information 
that  makes  all  other  subjects  easy.  A  list  of  the  books  read 
in  these  grades  last  year  is  given  for  your  consideration  at 
the  close  of  the  chapter. 

Dr.  Judd,  of  Chicago  University,  made  some  interesting 
investigations  in  reading.     His  conclusions  are  that,  during 


TEACHING  READING  103 

the  last  half  of  the  elementary  grades,  the  child  is  seriously 
retarded  in  this  subject,  because  the  schools  still  use  the 
same  methods  as  in  the  prirnary  grades.  The  pupil  stum- 
bles, because  his  eye  reads  so  much  faster  than  he  is  able  to 
pronounce  the  words.  Hence,  the  most  of  the  reading  of 
the  advanced  classes  should  be  silent  rather  than  oral,  and 
the  teacher  must  use  entirely  different  methods  in  the 
advanced  grades  than  she  uses  in  the  primary  grades.  This 
is  an  interesting  conclusion  and  well  worth  considering. 

Group  reading  is  a  plan  now  used  in  many  of  the  best 
schools  to  supplement  the  regular  reading  classes.  It  is 
usually  sight  reading  and,  therefore,  books  a  few  grades 
lower  than  the  regular  reader  should  be  used  at  first. 

The  program  suggested  for  rural  schools  allows  twenty 
minutes  for  group  reading  three  times  a  week.  The  pupils 
of  the  first  and  second  years  are  usually  not  sufficiently 
advanced  for  this  work,  although  I  have  seen  it  well  done 
in  the  primary  room  of  a  graded  school.  In  conducting 
the  recitation,  the  teacher  should  divide  the  entire  school 
into  groups  of  two,  unless  there  are  thirty  or  more  students. 
In  that  case,  three  in  a  group  would  be  better.  The  fewer 
in  a  group,  the  more  time  each  has  to  read,  but  there  must 
be  no  more  groups  than  the  teacher  can  give  individual 
attention.  One  student  in  each  group  acts  as  leader  and  is 
responsible  for  getting  and  returning  the  books.  We  have 
used  five  cent  paper  covered  classics  for  this  work  for  six 
years  and  had  them  in  good  condition.  Of  course,  this 
would  not  be  possible,  if  the  students  used  the  books  at 
their  desks.  They  have  them  only  during  the  recitation. 
One  entertainment  in  almost  any  rural  school  would  furnish 
enough  money  to  buy  abundance  of  group  reading  material. 

As  soon  as  the  books  are  passed  one  student  of  each 
group  begins  to  read  aloud,  He  reads  a  paragraph  or  two, 


104  RURAL  EDUCATION 

and  then  the  other  reads  until  a  convenient  stopping  place 
is  reached.  If  there  are  more  than  two  in  a  group,  all  read 
in  turn,  as  many  times  around  as  the  period  will  permit. 
With  two  in  a  group,  each  pupil  reads  for  ten  minutes,  a 
longer  time  than  is  devoted  to  reading  in  the  regular  class 
in  an  entire  week. 

If  group  reading  has  never  been  tried  in  a  school,  the 
students  will  probably  think  it  odd  for  a  few  times  until  they 
get  used  to  it.  But  this  "organized  confusion"  should  be 
conducive  to  excellent  results.  Everything,  however,  will 
depend  upon  the  teacher.  Some  of  the  best  reading  I 
have  ever  seen  has  been  done  in  this  way,  where  the  teacher 
passed  quietly  from  group  to  group,  pronouncing  a  word 
here,  correcting  a  faulty  expression  there,  and  keeping  up 
the  interest  everywhere.  On  the  other  hand,  teachers  have 
started  the  group  reading  work  and  then  sat  at  the  desk 
doing  something  else  for  the  entire  period,  Such  a  plan 
not  only  invites  failure;  it  insures  it. 

A  list  of  the  classics  used  for  group  reading  in  one  school, 
is  here  given,  because  it  may  be  helpful  to  young  teachers. 
The  author  would  have  appreciated  such  information  a  few 
years  ago.  In  addition  to  literature,  these  lists  include 
material  for  elementary  science,  geography  and  history. 


SUGGESTIVE  GRADED  LISTS  FOR  GROUP  READING 

FIRST  LIST 

First  Grade 

Story  of  the  Buds.  Aesop's  Fables,  I. 

Flower  Friends  I.  Aesop's  Fables,  II. 

Butterfly's  Home.  Butterfly's  Baby. 

Babes  of  the  Meadow.  Selections  from  Aesop  I. 

Babes  of  the  Wood.  Selections  from  Aesop  II. 
Plant  Babies. 


TEACHING  READING 


105 


Second  Grade 


Roots  and  Stems. 
Robinson  Crusoe  I. 
Robinson  Crusoe  II. 
Robinson  Crusoe  III. 
Robinson  Crusoe  IV. 
Children  of  History  I. 
Children  of  History  II. 


The  Flower  World. 
Little  Red  Riding  Hood. 
Flower  Friends  II. 
Flower  Friends  III. 
Some  Bird  Friends. 
Legends  of  Spring  Time. 


Third    Grade 


Stories  of  Pilgrims. 

Story  of  Pocahontas. 

Washington  Irving. 

George  Stephenson. 

General  Putnam. 

Columbus. 

Robert  Fulton. 

Peter  Cooper. 

Story  of  Franklin. 

Tennyson. 

Stories  of  Am.  Rev.  I. 

Stories  of  Am.  Rev.  II. 

Stories  of  Am.  Rev.  III. 

Stories  from  Garden  and  Field  I. 

Stories  from  Garden  and  Field  II. 

James  Watt. 

Louisa  M.  Alcott. 

S.  F.  B.  Morse. 

Hawthorne. 


Edison. 

Puss  in  Boots. 

Story  of  Norsemen. 

Liberty  Bell. 

Whittier. 

Cyrus  W.  Field. 

Story  of  Bryant. 

Eli  Whitney. 

William  Penn. 

Washington. 

Daniel  Webster. 

Lincoln. 

Little  Lucy's  Wonderful  Globe  I. 

Little  Lucy's  Wonderful  Globe  II. 

Little    Lucy's    WTonderful    Globe 

III. 

Grimm's  Fairy  Tales,  I. 
Grimm's  Fairy  Tales,  II. 
Boston  Tea  Party. 


Fourth  Grade 


Story  of  Marquette. 

Joan  of  Arc. 

Selections  from  Longfellow. 

Stories  of  Flowerland  I. 

Stories  of  Birdland  I. 

Stories  of  Birdland  II. 

Longfellow. 

Stories  of  Woodland  I. 


Thomas  Jefferson. 
Story  of  Dickens. 
Story  of  Lafayette. 
Admiral  Farragut. 
The  Chimaera. 


Stories  of  Woodland  II. 

Chevalier  La  Salle. 

Holmes. 

The  Golden  Touch. 

Pioneers  of  WTest. 

Fremont  and  Kit  Carson. 

Story  of  De  Soto. 


Fifth  Grade 


Three  Golden  Apples. 
Miraculous  Pitcher. 
Paradise  of  Children. 
Story  of  Audubon. 


106  RURAL  EDUCATION 


Sixth  Grade 

Thanatopsis.  John  Gilpin. 

Selections  from  Longfellow.  King  of  Golden  River. 

Great  Carbuncle.  We  Are  Seven. 

Seventh  Grade 

Madison.  Philip  of  Pokanaket. 

Patrick  Henry.  Peter  the  Great. 

Peter  Stuyvesant.  Oliver  Hazard  Perry. 

Henry  Hudson.  Lays  of  Ancient  Rome. 

Life  of  Grant.  George  Dewey. 

Washington.  Declaration  of  Independence. 

Enoch  Arden.  The  Culprit  Fay. 

Eyangeline.  John  Paul  Jones. 

Rime  of  Ancient  Mariner.  The  Boy  Lincoln. 

The  Voyage.  John  Hancock. 

Eighth  Grade 

Howe's  Masquerade.  Cotter's  Saturday  Night. 

Mr.  Higginbotham's  Catastrophe.  The  Deserted  Village. 

Frederick  Douglas.  Henry  VIII. 

Choice  Selections.  Lady  Eleanor's  Mantle. 

Stratford-on-Avon.  Lincoln's  Speeches. 

Merchant  of  Venice.  The  Elegy. 

As  You  Like  It.  Richard  II. 

Julius  Caesar.  Jefferson. 

Prisoner  of  Chillon.  Prophetic  Pictures. 

Othello.  John  Adams. 

Tempest — Mid-summer  Night's  Alexander  Hamilton. 

Dream.  Minister's  Black  Veil. 

SECOND  LIST 
First  Grade 

Fairy  Stories  of  the  Moon.  Sun  Myths. 

Indian  Myths.  Norse  Legends. 

Nursery  Tales.  Kitty  Mittens  and  Her  Friends. 

Second  Grade 

Stories  from  Anderson.  Bird  Stories  from  the  Poets. 

Stories  from  Grimm.  The  Little  Brown  Baby  and  Other 
Little  Workers.  Babies. 

Jack  and  the  Beanstalk.  Gemila,  the  Child  of  the  Desert 
Adventures  of  a  Brownie.  and  Some  of  Her  Sisters. 

Norse  Legends.  Child's  Garden  of  Verses, 
Story  of  Wool 


TEACHING  READING  107 


Third  Grade 

Story  of  Flax.  Aunt  Martha's  Corner  Cupboard. 

Story  of  Glass.  Famous  Artists. 

Adventures  of  a  Little  Waterdrop. 

Fourth  Grade 

Story  of  Coal.  Alice's  First  Adventures  in  Won- 

Story  of  Wheat.  derland. 

Night  Before  Christmas  and  Other      Famous  Artists. 
Christmas  Poems  and  Stories.      Goody  Two-Shoes. 

Fifth  Grade 

Story  of  Silk.  Heroes  from  King  Arthur. 

Story  of  Sugar.  Whittier's  Poems. 

History  in  Verse.  Jackanapes. 

A  Dog  of  Flanders.  Stories  from  Robin  Hood. 

Sixth  Grade 

Gifts  of  the  Forest.  Later  English  Heroes. 

Great  European  Cities.  Story  of  William  Tell. 

Old  English  Heroes. 

Seventh  Grade 

Courtship  of  Miles  Standish  Story  of  Jean  Valjean. 

Snow  Bound.  Poems  of  Thomas  Moore. 

Man  without  a  Country. 

Eighth  Grade 

Building  of  the  Ship,  etc.  Gold  Bug. 

Horatius,   The  Armada,    Bunker  Edgar  Allen  Poe. 
Hill  Address. 


The  purpose  of  all  reading  has  been  said  to  be  "the 
interpretation  of  the  printed  page  with  accuracy  and  a 
reasonable  degree  of  rapidity."  From  the  standpoint  of 
learning  to  read,  it  should  be  a  thought-getting  and  a 
thought-giving  process.  The  time  of  the  reading  class, 
therefore,  should  not  be  taken  up  with  either  word  drills  or 
phonics  at  first,  but  with  reading  only. 

The  teacher  should  own  a  printing  press,  which  can  be 
purchased  for  about  one  dollar  and  a  half,  and  make  a  few 


108  RURAL  EDUCATION 

charts  for  the  beginning  class  in  reading.  Chart  and  black- 
board work,  together  with  word  drills,  should  constitute  the 
lessons  for  the  first  few  weeks.  The  author  believes  that 
script  and  print  should  be  taught  at  the  same  time,  as  a 
great  many  experiments  with  all  classes  of  children  have 
shown  that  they  get  both  almost,  if  not  quite,  as  easily  as 
one  at  a  time. 

During  the  entire  course,  the  work  in  reading  should  be 
supplemented  with  the  story  telling,  dramatization,  and 
memorizing  of  literary  masterpieces  in  the  language  classes. 
Word  and  phonics  drills  should  be  conducted  until  all  the 
students  can  read  smoothly.  Good  reading  necessitates 
rapid  eye  movement.  Special  drills  for  this  should  be 
given  at  frequent  intervals.  The  voice  and  body  should  be 
allowed  to  help  express  thought.  Hence  the  value  of  dram- 
atization, plays  and  other  work  of  the  kind.  In  the  seat 
work  following  the  reading  lesson,  the  pupils  should  have 
an  opportunity  to  express  the  thoughts  of  the  lesson  in 
hand  work,  such  as  clay  modeling,  paper  cutting,  drawing, 
etc.  These  things  will  test  the  thought-getting  process. 

If  the  Division  Plan  instead  of  the  grade  plan  is  followed 
in  the  rural  school,  the  classes  in  reading,  as  in  other  sub- 
jects, should  be  divided  into  three  divisions.  The  First 
Division  classes  can  either  recite  separately,  dividing  the 
reading  period  as  given  in  the  program,  or  all  at  one  time, 
by  the  "Endless  Chain"  method.  That  is,  the  teacher  can 
call  the  entire  First  Division  for  recitation  and  have  all 
three  classes  recite  at  once.  This  method  may  seem  diffi- 
cult or  even  unwise;  but  I  have  seen  many  teachers  get 
excellent  results  in  this  way.  It  will  be  remembered  that 
the  lower  grades  of  a  rural  school  do  not  average  more  than 
three  or  four  students  each.  Hence,  ten  or  a  dozen  students 
would  constitute  the  entire  First  Division.  In  following  the 


TEACHING  READING  109 

" Endless  Chain"  method,  the  teacher  has  each  class  of  the 
division  sit  in  a  little  semi-circle  around  her.  She  starts 
the  second  and  third  classes  in  about  the  same  manner  in 
which  group  reading  is  conducted.  They  read  in  a  rather 
low  tone,  not  disturbing  the  other  students,  while  the 
teacher  presents  the  new  work  to  the  first  class.  As  the  other 
two  classes  are  close  by  her,  she  can  assist  them,  if  necessary, 
without  interfering  with  her  own  work  with  the  other  class. 
As  soon  as  she  is  through  with  the  first  class,  they  are  al- 
lowed to  continue  reading,  and  the  teacher  presents  the 
new  work  and  assists  the  second  class.  The  third  class 
work  is  then  conducted  in  a  similar  manner.  In  this  way, 
each  student  will  be  receiving  the  direct  help  of  the  teacher 
for  thirty  minutes  in  the  reading  recitation,  whereas  he 
would  receive  but  ten  minutes,  if  each  class  were  called 
separately.  While  there  are  disadvantages  in  such  a  plan, 
the  advantages  are  evident,  if  the  teacher  is  capable  of 
conducting  the  work  in  this  way.  It  is  a  very  interesting 
method  and  should  not  be  condemned  until  thoroughly 
tried. 

In  the  Second  and  Third  Division,  the  classes  in  reading 
should  be  combined,  that  is,  the  fourth  and  fifth  year  pupils 
should  recite  together,  reading  one  half  of  the  second  year's 
work  one  year  and  the  other  half  the  next.  The  Third 
Division,  or  sixth  and  seventh  year  students,  should  be 
conducted  in  the  same  way.  If  the  students  have  been 
well  instructed  in  those  elements  that  are  necessary  to  pro- 
duce good  reading,  there  is  no  reason  why  these  two  divi- 
sions can  not  be  combined  with  profit.  There  is  no  par- 
ticular difference  which  half  of  a  given  list  of  reading  books 
is  read  the  first  year  after  the  student  has  passed  the  First 
Division.  A  brief  outline  for  each  division  follows. 


110  RURAL  EDUCATION 

FIRST  DIVISION  WORK  (1-3  years) 

While  the  work  of  the  division  may  be  carried  on  by 
the  "Endless  Chain"  method,  as  already  suggested,  some 
teachers  will  undoubtedly  prefer  to  keep  the  classes  sepa- 
rate. The  work  of  each  year  is  here  discussed  with  that 
plan  in  view. 

First  Year  Work.  First  of  all,  some  good  method  reader 
should  be  selected,  if  one  has  not  already  been  adopted.  A 
suggestive  list  of  readers  is  given  at  the  close  of  this  chapter. 
The  teacher's  manual  may  be  obtained  from  the  publisher 
of  the  method  reader  used.  This  manual  must  be  studied 
carefully  and  followed  as  closely  as  possible.  The  charts 
made  for  the  beginning  class  should  be  based  upon  the 
first  book  or  primer  of  the  series  used.  These  charts,  pre- 
viously suggested,  may  be  illustrated  with  pictures  and 
made  attractive.  Pictures  for  this  purpose  can  always  be 
obtained  from  old  readers,  magazines,  and  other  sources. 
It  is  not  best  for  the  teacher  to  confine  herself  to  one 
method.  For  example,  if  the  sentence  method  is  used  at 
first,  it  is  well  to  use  the  best  of  the  other  methods  later. 

The  work  for  about  the  first  six  weeks  should  consist 
of  chart  and  blackboard  work,  using  both  script  and  print. 
The  program  is  arranged  for  a  recitation  period  of  thirty 
minutes  in  reading  in  the  morning  and  twenty  minutes  in 
the  afternoon  for  this  division.  The  teacher  should  see 
that  this  time  is  used  for  reading  only.  Some  good  teachers 
prefer  to  begin  phonics  at  the  first  of  the  year.  I  should 
rather  wait  until  the  chart  work  has  been  completed.  At 
any  rate  the  phonics  should  be  given  during  the  phonics 
period  and  not  with  the  reading.  Phonics  and  word  drills 
are  purely  mechanical.  If  part  of  this  time  is  taken  up  in 
presenting  phonics,  the  child  will  not  get  the  proper  con- 
ception of  reading.  It  will  not  be  a  thought-getting  process 


TEACHING  READING  111 

for  him.  Phonics  is  merely  a  means  to  an  end,  and  good 
reading  is  the  end  sought.  Word  drills  should  be  placed 
on  the  board  and  a  rapid  drill  given  just  preceding  the 
study  period  for  reading.  Other  drills  may  be  printed  on 
charts. 

After  the  board  and  chart  work  have  been  thoroughly 
mastered,  but  not  memorized,  the  primer  or  first  book  of 
the  method  series  should  be  taken  up.  Usually  about 
twenty-five  or  thirty  pages  of  the  primer  can  be  studied 
by  teaching  words  only.  Some  teachers  prefer  to  read 
about  that  much  in  three  or  four  different  primers  before 
laying  a  sufficient  foundation  in  phonics  to  continue  in  the 
basic  text.  For  a  while  after  taking  up  the  work  in  the 
primer,  it  is  best  to  use  the  same  book  for  both  reading 
periods.  A  little  later,  however,  a  book  for  each  period 
should  be  used.  As  soon  as  the  primer  has  been  com- 
pleted, the  first  book  of  the  series  ought  to  be  taken  up 
preferably  in  the  morning  period,  and  as  many  books  read 
in  the  afternoon  period  as  can  be  mastered.  Students  can 
often  read  much  more  than  they  do,  if  only  given  the  oppor- 
tunity. During  the  first  year  in  school  the  class  should 
read  at  least  three  primers  and  three  first  readers.  This 
surely  is  a  conservative  number  in  view  of  the  fact  that 
some  schools  read  over  thirty,  as  already  noted.  It  is 
imperative  that  the  teacher  understand  the  plan  of  the 
series  used.  Some  plans  have  the  primer  and  the  first 
reader  for  the  first  year's  work;  others  have  a  first  and 
second  book  for  the  first  year;  still  others,  a  primer  only 
for  the  first  year  and  a  first  reader  for  the  second  year. 

Second  Year.  It  is  well  to  begin  with  a  reader  that  is 
a  little  below  the  children's  maximum  ability  at  the  end  of 
the  first  year.  Read  two  or  three  first  readers,  preferably 
sets  not  read  before  in  the  first  year's  work,  and  at  least 


112  RURAL  EDUCATION 

four  second  readers  during  the  year.  This  number  should 
easily  be  read,  if  the  first  year's  work  has  been  well  done. 
Review  and  continue  the  work  in  phonics  at  first  during  the 
phonics  period  only,  later  with  the  reading  period,  if  desired. 
Word  drills  and  dramatization  are  as  essential  as  in  the 
first  year's  work.  Children  at  this  age  need  to  act  things 
out,  and  the  value  of  dramatization  as  a  means  to  good 
expression  cannot  be  overestimated. 

Third  Year.  Read  two  or  three  second  year  readers  and 
three  or  four  third  year  readers.  Keep  up  the  drill  work 
in  phonics.  At  the  end  of  this  year,  students  should  have 
mastered  the  mechanics  of  reading.  If  they  have  not  done 
so,  it  is  well  for  the  teacher  to  make  a  careful  study  of  the 
situation,  as  it  is  probably  not  the  fault  of  the  student. 
Consult  the  books  suggested  for  supplementary  reading  as 
well  as  the  lists  for  group  reading.  Try  to  get  some  of  these 
for  the  library  and  encourage  the  students  to  read  them 
outside  of  class  work.  The  teacher  who  can  cultivate  in 
her  pupils  a  love  for  good  reading  has  done  her  part.  One 
great  educator  said,  "If  you  teach  a  child  how  to  read  with- 
out teaching  him  what  to  read,  you  have  put  a  dangerous 
weapon  in  his  hands." 

SECOND  DIVISION  WORK  (4-5  years) 

As  already  intimated,  the  two  classes  of  this  division 
should  be  combined.  Each  class  will  then  have  just  twice 
the  time  that  it  would  have  if  they  were  not  combined. 
Since  the  students  should  know  the  mechanics  of  reading 
when  they  enter  the  Second  Division,  it  makes  little  differ- 
ence which  half  of  a  given  list  of  books  they  read  first. 
Plan  to  read  at  least  a  dozen  regular  and  supplementary 
readers  during  these  two  years.  Continue  with  the  books 
of  the  same  set  you  were  using  in  the  First  Division,  as 


TEACHING  READING  113 

several  of  these  will  undoubtedly  have  six  or  eight  books  in 
a  series.  Do  not  allow  the  students  to  get  the  false  notion 
that  they  have  been  put  back  in  case  they  read  from  books 
below  their  grade.  In  fact,  it  is  usually  best  to  begin  the 
year's  work  in  reading  with  a  book  or  two  below  grade. 
For  this  division,  I  would  suggest  about  two  third  readers, 
six  fourth  readers,  and  six  fifth  readers.  Following  this 
plan,  the  students  would  read  one  third  reader,  three  fourth 
readers,  and  three  fifth  readers  each  year.  Much  addi- 
tional supplementary  reading  can  be  given  in  this  division, 
if  the  group  reading  material  is  available.  If  students  are 
not  familiar  enough  with  phonics,  give  them  the  phonic 
drills  with  the  First  Division,  or  by  themselves,  as  most 
convenient.  Continue  with  dramatization,  and  have  the 
students  memorize  several  selections  from  literature,  unless 
it  seems  best  that  they  should  do  so  in  the  language  work. 

THIRD  DIVISION  WORK  (6-7  years) 

The  two  classes  of  this  division  recite  together,  as  sug- 
gested for  the  Second  Division.  From  twelve  to  fifteen 
books  should  be  read  during  the  two  years,  reading  one 
half  of  the  list  the  first  year,  and  the  other  half  the  other 
year.  Some  of  these  books  will  probably  be  the  advanced 
books  of  the  regular  readers.  The  rest  should  be  classics. 
This  division  will  be  able  to  read  a  great  many  of  the  classics 
in  the  group  reading  list.  Continue  memorizing  literary 
selections  and  drill  for  expression.  It  is  well  for  the  teacher 
to  remember  that  from  seventy-five  to  ninety  per  cent  of 
the  students  in  this  division  will  never  get  beyond  these 
grades  in  school.  They  are,  therefore,  getting  their  prep- 
aration for  life  rather  than  for  high  school.  Review  phonics 
even  in  this  division.  If  the  students  stumble  in  their  read- 
ing, special  drills  for  expression  can  be  put  on  the  board  and 


114  RURAL  EDUCATION 

on  charts,  to  overcome  mechanical  reading.      They  should 
also  be  encouraged  to  do  a  great  deal  of  silent  reading. 

I  have  already  referred  to  the  fact  that  one  school  in 
Minnesota  plans  to  read  an  average  of  thirty  books  in  each 
of  the  lower  grades,  annually.  I  believe  the  list  of  books 
read  will  be  of  interest  to  teachers.  The  books  used  in  the 
first  four  grades  last  year  are  here  given.  It  will  be  noticed 
that  the  students  of  the  third  and  fourth  grades  were  com- 
bined. This  is  worthy  of  mention,  because  some  teachers 
think  it  is  impossible  to  combine  even  the  fourth  and  fifth 
years  as  suggested  in  our  Second  Division  work. 

BOOKS  READ  IN  ONE  YEAR 
First  Grade 

Ward  Primer  Art  Literature  I. 

Ward  Additional  Primer  Palmer  Method  Primer 

Expression  Primer  Hiawatha  Primer 

Laurel  Primer  Philip  at  School 

Little  Red  Hen  Brownie  Primer 

Wide  Awake  Primer  Lights  to  Literature  I. 

Wide  Awake  I.  Dramatic  Reader  1. 

Child  Life  Primer  Child  Lore  Dramatic 

Howe  Primer  Child  Life  I. 

Ward  Additional  I.  Child  Life  II. 

Blodgette  Primer  Howe  I. 

Reading  Literature  Primer  Polly  and  Dolly 

Ward  I  Overall  Boys 

Reading  Literature  I.  Cat  That  Was  Lonesome 

Sunbonnet  Babies  Mouse  That  Lost  His  Tail 

Circus  Reader 

Second  Grade 

Ward  Primer  Pig  Brother 

Ward  Additional  Primer  Polly  and  Dolly 

Ward  I  Tommy  Tinker 

Ward  Additional  I.  Stepping  Stones  III. 

Child  Life  II.  Mother  Goose  Village 

Reynard  the  Fox.  Nature  Myths 

Ward  II.  Dramatization  of  Hiawatha 

Child  Lore  Dramatic  Dramatic  Reader  I. 

Ward  III.  Great  Americans  for  Little  Ameri- 

Philip  at  School  cans 


TEACHING  READING  115 

Second  Grade — Continued 

Brownie  Primer  Dramatic  Reader  II. 

Little  Red  Hen  Early  Cavemen 

Circus  Reader  Tree  Dwellers 

Howe  II.  Lodrix 

Stepping  Stones  II.  Children  of  Cliff 

Eskimo  Stories  Old  Mother  West  Wind 

Boy  Blue  and  Friends  Howe  III. 

Third  and  Fourth  Grades 

(Combined) 

Mother  Goose  Village  Boyhood  of  Washington 

Classic  Myths  A  Perfect  Tribute 

Children  of  History  I.  In  Fable  Land 

Children  of  History  II.  Dramatic  Reader 

Howe  III.  Child  Life  III. 

Merry  Animal  Tales  Viking  Tales 

Adventures  of  a  Brownie  Wagner  Opera  Stories 

Old  Mother  West  Wind  Four  Footed  Friends 

Four  Old  Greeks  Boyhood  of  Lincoln 

Note:     The  above  list  is  for  the  first  seven  months  only. 

OUTLINE  IN  PHONICS 

The  outline  here  suggested  is  not  expected  to  take  the 
place  of  a  method  reader.  The  importance  of  studying  the 
teacher's  manual  for  the  basic  text  or  method  reader  used 
has  already  been  emphasized.  The  order  of  this  outline 
will  probably  not  coincide  with  that  of  the  phonics  given  in 
the  teacher's  manual.  It  seems  logical,  and  may  be  used 
to  supplement  the  manual. 

The  work  in  phonics  should  be  started  about  the  time 
the  students  begin  to  read  in  the  book.  The  importance  of 
special  charts  for  phonics,  rather  than  having  that  work  dur- 
ing the  reading  period,  cannot  be  too  strongly  emphasized. 
Phonics  is  mechanical,  reading  should  not  be.  Ordinarily,  it  is 
considered  that  students  should  be  able  to  complete  phonics 
in  about  a  year  and  a  half.  It  will  not  be  difficult,  therefore, 
to  master  this  outline  by  the  time  they  have  finished  the 
First  Division  work.  If  they  have  not  done  this,  I  would 
say  it  is  the  fault  of  the  teacher  rather  than  of  the  student. 


116  RURAL  EDUCATION 

I.  Classes  of  Phonic  Keys 

1.  Short  keys 

2.  Long  keys 

3.  Consonant  keys 

4.  Sight  keys 

II.  Order  of  Presentation 

1.  Short  vowel  sounds  and  some  consonant  sounds 

2.  Short  keys  and  the  rest  of  the  consonant  sounds  after  they 
are  needed 

3.  Families  with  short  keys   (made  by  combining     consonant 
sounds  with  short  keys,  thus  b — at,  etc.) 

4.  Long  vowel  sounds 

5.  Long  keys  (formed  by  adding  V  to  the  short  keys) 

6.  Families  of  words  with  the  long  keys 

7.  Consonant  keys 

8.  Sight  keys 

9.  Keys  with  more  than  one  sound 

By  the  end  of  the  first  year  the  students  will  probably 
have  gone  at  least  as  far  as  six  or  seven,  in  order  of  presenta- 
tion. Much  drill  must  be  given  on  the  different  families 
of  words  and  on  making  out  new  words.  In  the  second  and 
third  years  review  and  drill  with  emphasis  upon  the  families 
and  new  words.  Then  take  up  the  last  three  topics,  and 
begin  to  teach  diacritical  marks.  Students  should  be 
ready  for  the  formal  study  of  the  dictionary  as  soon  as  they 
enter  the  Second  Division.  They  should  then  be  asked  to 
buy  a  good  dictionary,  and  systematic  lessons  should  be 
given  on  the  way  to  use  it. 

Reading  Sets 

Method  Readers  Suitable  for  Basic  Texts 
The  Gordon  Readers  Aldine  Readers 

The  Beacon  Readers  Lippincott's  Readers 

The  Ward  Series  Baldwin  &  Bender  Readers 

New  Progressive  Road 

Supplementary  Readers 

Jones  Readers  The  Elson  Readers 

Carroll  and  Brooks  Free  &  Treadwell  Readers 

Lights  to  Literature  The  Brooks  Readers 

The  Health  Readers  The  Wide- A  wake  Readers 

Language  Readers  American  School  Readers 

Williams'  Choice  Literature  The  Howe  Readers 

Sprague  Classic  Readers 


CHAPTER  X 
LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE 

Language  is  one  of  the  subjects  too  often  slighted  in  the 
rural  schools,  perhaps  because  the  teacher  is  least  familiar 
with  what  to  teach  and  how  to  teach  it.  The  aim  of  this 
course  is  to  assist  students  to  use  good  English  both  in  oral 
and  written  expression,  and  to  create  a  desire  for  the  best 
in  literature.  Experience  has  proved  that  technical  gram- 
mar will  not  do  this.  Hence,  all  the  work  in  the  first  two 
divisions  nd  a  large  part  of  that  in  the  third  must  be  some- 
thing else  than  grammar. 

If  the  teacher  were  not  so  used  to  hearing  incorrect 
expressions  from  the  students  and  receiving  poorly  written 
composition  papers,  she  would  be  surprised  that  a  child 
could  not  learn  to  use  good  English  in  one  year.  The 
method  of  teaching  language  must  surely  be  inefficient, 
when  even  high  school  students  often  fail  to  speak  correctly 
and  are  still  worse  in  written  work.  Much  of  the  written 
work  should  never  have  been  done.  Teachers  sometimes 
give  written  lessons  with  no  intention  of  ever  reading  the 
papers,  thereby  committing  a  crime  against  good  teaching. 
No  paper  should  ever  be  written  unless  it  is  to  be  the  very 
best  work  the  student  can  produce,  and  unless  it  is  to  be 
carefully  read  and  criticized  by  the  teacher,  and  returned 
to  the  student  for  correction.  This  cannot  be  done  every 
day.  Better  by  far  have  a  written  lesson  once  a  week  or 
even  every  two  weeks  and  demand  efficient  work,  and 
nothing  but  the  best  expression  at  his  command  should  be 
accepted  from  any  student  in  recitation  work. 

Language  teaching  is  still  more  difficult,  if  the  child  is 
unfortunate  enough  to  hear  incorrect  expressions  at  home. 

117 


118  RURAL  EDUCATION 

Such  may  be  unavoidable,  but  there  is  no  excuse  for  the 
teachers  who  will  allow  children  who  do  use  correct  forms 
when  they  enter  school  to  become  confused  on  account  of  the 
poor  language  heard  in  the  schoolroom.  Drill,  drill,  drill, 
and  have  some  definite  plan  of  drill.  Drill  must  be  the 
slogan  of  the  teacher. 

Until  recently  there  have  been  but  very  few  helps  for 
the  teacher  in  language.  Since  technical  grammar  has 
been  driven  from  the  grades  to  the  high  school,  where  it 
belongs,  some  really  good  language  books  are  appearing. 
There  are  still  on  the  market  so-called  language  series  that 
begin  to  teach  grammar  in  the  fourth  grade.  The  teacher 
should  become  familiar  with  as  many  of  the  new  books  as 
possible  before  attempting  to  teach  the  work  of  the  First 
Division  where  no  textbook  should  be  used. 

The  teacher  should  remember  that  the  first  requisite  of 
good  language  teaching  is  to  secure  the  interest  of  the 
children.  Some  teachers  are  natural  story  tellers;  others 
must  learn  to  be.  Even  a  story  well  read,  if  it  is  proper- 
ly selected,  will  hold  the  interest  of  the  children.  While 
a  great  deal  of  material  is  suggested  for  the  first  division 
work,  it  remains  for  the  teacher  to  correlate  these  topics 
in  such  a  way  that  there  will  be  unity. 

FIRST  DIVISION  WORK 

The  three  classes  of  this  division  can  easily  recite  at 
the  same  time,  as  the  lessons  are  given  by  the  teacher  and 
reproduced  by  the  pupils.  One  of  the  best  ways  to  begin 
is  to  select  some  very  interesting  story  full  of  action  such 
as  the  Three  Bears'  or  the  story  of  The  Little  Half  Chick/ 
and  either  tell  it  or  read  it  well.  As  soon  as  the  story  has 
been  told,  select  pupils  from  the  class  to  act  out  the  parts 
as  the  teacher  retells  it.  Continue,  then,  until  the  pupils  can 


LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE  119 

give  it  all,  changing  the  children  until  all  have  taken  part. 
Many  good  stories  can  be  taken  directly  from  the  reading 
lesson  and  dramatized  in  the  language  class.  So  much  ex- 
cellent material  is  to  be  obtained  from  mythology  and  liter- 
ature that  there  is  no  need  of  using  anything  commonplace 
in  this  work.  The  library  should  contain  a  few  special  books. 

The  aim  of  the  language  for  this  division  is  two  fold: 
First,  to  create  a  love  for  good  literature;  and,  second,  to 
enable  the  child  to  express  his  own  thoughts  on  subjects 
within  his  experience,  as  well  as  to  express  new  thoughts 
that  are  brought  to  him  through  stories,  songs,  poems, 
pictures,  etc.  The  first  aim  may  be  accomplished  by  stories 
read  and  told  by  the  teacher,  and  the  second  by  conversa- 
tion, dramatization,  oral  reproductions,  stories,  and  by 
definite  questions  and  answers  based  on  stories,  pictures 
and  nature  studies.  From  what  has  already  been  said  in 
the  introduction,  it  is  evident  that  the  greater  part  of  the 
work  in  the  First  Division  should  be  oral. 

There  is  a  mechanical  side  in  language  as  well  as  in 
reading.  The  things  to  be  emphasized  in  this  are  correct 
forms  of  speech,  enlarging  the  vocabulary,  and  correcting 
common  errors  in  expression,  also  the  use  of  capitals,  such 
as  at  the  beginning  of  a  sentence  and  lines  of  poetry,  I  and 
O,  and  in  proper  names.  These  rules  are  all  within  the 
comprehension  of  the  children,  as  they  are  using  the  forms 
from  day  to  day.  Other  mechanics  are  the  use  of  the 
question  and  quotation  marks,  the  period  and  such  other 
marks  of  punctuation  as  students  will  see  in  reading  the 
stories  that  will  be  dramatized  in  the  language  lesson. 
During  the  last  half  of  the  work  of  this  division,  after  the 
children  have  begun  to  write,  margins,  simple  paragraphs, 
and  elements  of  letter  writing,  should  be  taken  up.  If  the 
teacher  prefers  to  keep  the  work  of  the  First  Division  chil- 


120  RURAL  EDUCATION 

dren  separate  from  the  second  and  third-year  students  of 
the  First  Division,  she  will  find  abundance  of  material  in  the 
topics  suggested  under  the  several  heads  for  this  division. 
Time  should  be  saved  by  having  all  the  classes  of  this  di- 
vision recite  together.  The  following  topics  are  suggested : 

Common  Objects.  Conversation  about  toys,  animals, 
plants,  flowers,  colors,  or  any  articles  in  common  use  in  the 
home  and  at  school.  Describe  the  position  of  objects  in 
the  schoolroom  by  the  proper  use  of  such  terms  as,  on, 
above,  under,  left,  right,  before,  behind,  in  the  middle,  and 
other  similar  words.  Children  will  be  delighted  to  tell 
about  the  playthings  used  at  home. 

Phenomena  of  Nature.  Conversation  about  the  sky, 
clouds,  water,  rain,  hail,  snow,  rocks,  soils,  metals,  grass, 
grains,  weeds,  insects,  birds,  etc.  The  sun,  the  moon,  and 
the  stars  are  also  interesting  topics  under  this  head.  Many 
of  these  can  be  studied  at  first  hand  and  from  suitable 
poems  about  nature. 

Pictures.  Prints  in  black  and  white,  colored  pictures, 
and  those  sketched  on  the  blackboard  by  the  teacher  can 
be  used.  The  pictures  of  the  schoolroom  should  always 
be  utilized  in  this  way.  Too  often,  schoolroom  pictures 
are  merely  dust  collectors.  It  is  better  to  have  one  good 
picture  that  will  really  be  an  inspiration  to  all  in  the  school- 
room than  twenty  such  as  those  often  found  hanging  on 
the  walls.  Small  pictures  can  be  used  to  advantage  for 
individual  work.  The  Perry  pictures  are  good,  and  a 
sufficient  quantity  for  this  purpose  can  be  obtained  for  a 
few  cents.  Encourage  the  students  to  talk  freely  about 
the  pictures  used,  which,  later  on,  may  be  made  the  basis 
for  the  written  work  in  language. 

Literature.  Stories  and  poems.  As  already  stated,  the 
teacher  should  develop  the  art  of  story  telling;  but,  until 


LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE 


121 


then,  read  the  selections  well.  Fairy  tales,  fables,  stories 
of  child  life,  stories  of  animals,  and  stories  of  great  men 
and  women  may  be  used.  Most  of  the  modern  primers 
have  some  stories  that  can  be  used  in  the  work  of  this  divi- 
sion. See  that  the  students  are  given  an  opportunity  to 
learn  some  of  the  great  literary  masterpieces.  The  idea 
used  to  prevail,  that  children  could  not  appreciate  litera- 
ture, and  attempts  were  made  to  rewrite  the  original  in 
such  form  as  they  could  understand.  We  now  know  this 
is  a  false  conception.  I  have  heard  children  of  the  second 
and  third  grades  give  the  Children's  Hour,  poems  from 
Eugene  Field  and  Robert  Louis  Stevenson,  selections  from 
Hiawatha  and  similar  literature  from  other  authors,  with 
as  much  feeling  and  expression  as  any  grown-up  could 
give  them.  A  list  of  suitable  selections  for  memorizing 
is  given  at  the  close  of  the  chapter. 

Dramatization.     This  is  a  very  important  and  interest- 
ing part  of  the  language  work.     Simple  costumes  can  easily 


Figure  9.     Dramatizing  a  Chridtmaa  story  in  the  First  Division 


122  RURAL  EDUCATION 

be  prepared  for  special  events,  for  example,  the  Pilgrim 
hat,  collar  and  cuffs  for  a  Thanksgiving  program.  Al- 
though discussed  under  the  head  of  reading,  it  is  understood 
that  a  large  part  of  this  work  should  be  done  in  the  lan- 
guage period.  Only  stories  full  of  action  and  interest 
should  be  selected.  It  is  better  to  have  the  children  volun- 
teer for  the  work  in  dramatization  than  to  assign  them  to 
the  parts  and  ask  them  to  learn  something  that  they,  per- 
haps, do  not  care  for,  as  this  would  kill  spontaneity,  the 
very  thing  for  which  we  are  working. 

Correct  Forms  of  Expression.  Constant  drill  on  the  use 
of  such  words  as  I,  me,  is,  are,  was,  were,  has,  have,  see, 
saw,  seen,  do,  did,  done,  want,  give,  this,  that,  these,  those, 
nothing,  anything,  come,  came,  write,  wrote,  written,  know, 
knew,  known,  take,  took,  taken.  Special  exercises  to  pre- 
vent such  incorrect  expressions  as  "ain't  got,"  "it  is  me," 
"it  was  them,"  "I  seen  him,"  "me  and  John  will  go." 

Hygiene.  Conversation  about  the  human  body,  its  use 
and  beauty,  how  to  take  care  of  it,  a  simple  discussion  of 
foods,  what  to  eat  and  what  not  to  eat.  The  effects  of 
stimulants  and  narcotics,  such  as  tea,  coffee  and  tobacco 
upon  the  growth  of  a  child.  Cleanliness  as  related  to 
the  face  and  hands,  fingernails  and  care  of  the  hair  and 
teeth.  Correct  position  of  the  body  in  sitting,  standing  and 
walking.  Care  of  the  eyes,  ears  and  mouth.  Infectious 
and  contagious  diseases,  with  special  reference  to  their  bear- 
ing on  the  health  and  welfare  of  childhood. 

Food,  Drink  and  Clothing.  Lessons  about  bread,  beef, 
mutton,  milk,  butter,  rice,  breakfast  foods,  fruit*  of  dif- 
ferent kinds  and  other  products  of  food  and  drink  suitable 
for  children.  In  the  study  of  clothing,  lessons  should  be 
given  on  the  raw  material  from  which  garments  are  ob- 
tained. Cotton,  linen,  woolen,  silk,  leather,  may  be  taken 


LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE  123 

in  order.  A  homemade  collection  of  the  raw  materials  and 
the  manufactured  products  would  be  valuable. 

Morals  and  Conduct.  Conversation  and  stories  to  in- 
culcate a  spirit  of  kindness  to  one  another,  to  brothers  and 
sisters,  parents  and  teachers;  kindness  to  animals,  and 
respect  due  to  the  aged  and  those  in  authority.  Give 
training  in  polite  and  courteous  manners,  as  well  as  polite 
forms  of  speech.  Under  this  head,  talks  on  the  care  and 
use  of  the  school  building,  furniture,  apparatus,  books, 
and  outbuildings,  should  be  given. 

Written  Work.  A  small  amount  of  written  work  can 
profitably  be  done  in  this  division  during  the  latter  part 
of  the  second  and  third  years.  The  tendency  is  to  overdo 
this,  however.  Plenty  of  material  for  the  written  work 
can  be  found  in  the  above  outlines  for  the  oral  work.  In 
addition,  simple  letter  writing  should  be  studied,  as  already 
intimated.  The  calendar  will  furnish  interesting  material 
for  the  days  of  the  week  and  the  months  of  the  year.  A 
new  calendar  should  be  made  at  the  beginning  of  each 
month,  and  the  old  one  taken  down. 

SECOND  DIVISION 

If  the  students  have  learned  to  read  well  enough  so 
that  they  can  get  the  thought  from  the  printed  page,  there 
is  no  reason  why  some  suitable  textbook  in  language  should 
not  be  introduced  in  the  Second  Division.  If  it  seems  best 
to  use  the  book  only  during  the  last  half  of  the  year,  review 
work  from  the  First  Division  outline  may  be  given  during  the 
first  half.  The  two  classes  will,  of  course,  recite  together. 
Even  if  the  book  is  used  from  the  first,  it  is  well  to  review 
those  parts  in  which  the  class  may  be  weak. 

Great  care  should  be  used  in  selecting  a  suitable  lan- 
guage series.  Get  one  that  will  be  true  to  name,  and  post- 


124  RURAL  EDUCATION 

pone  the  technical  grammar  at  least  until  the  grammar 
grades.  On  more  than  one  occasion,  teachers  have  called 
my  attention  to  some  splendid  work  in  the  intermediate 
grades  in  parsing  and  diagraming,  to  prove  that  students 
of  those  grades  could  study  grammar  and  apparently  under- 
stand it.  I  have  never  denied  that  they  could.  In  fact, 
I  am  also  willing  to  admit  that  the  same  students  could 
reproduce  figures  in  geometry  and  give  the  theorems,  and 
recite  in  many  other  subjects  that  we  never  think  of  offer- 
ing in  the  grades.  Such  things,  however,  are  done  at  the 
expense  of  the  fundamentals  which  they  should  be  learn- 
ing during  these  years.  In  every  case  where  students  were 
spending  their  time  on  these  technical  forms,  I  found  them 
to  be  weak  in  oral  and  written  expression. 

A  book  that  has  enough  material  for  the  two  years' 
work,  may  be  selected  for  this  division,  or,  if  desirable,  two 
books  in  the  same  series  m'ay  be  selected.  The  teacher 
should  become  familiar  with  the  entire  book  before  planning 
the  work  for  the  class,  as  she  may  need  to  omit  some  of  it 
or  have  it  studied  in  a  different  order.  Watch  for  the 
faulty  expressions  in  the  oral  work  and  keep  up  the  special 
drills  as  long  as  drills  may  be  needed.  Get  a  copy  of 
the  teacher's  manual  for  the  language  series  you  are  using, 
and  make  good  use  of  it.  The  newer  textbooks  will  give 
for  intermediate  work  such  topics  as:  the  study  of  pictures, 
story  telling,  letter  writing,  holiday  and  vacation  games, 
nature  stories,  geography  and  history  stories,  adventures, 
home  life,  and  others.  Word  drills  may  be  given  from  the 
reading  and  other  lessons,  to  increase  the  vocabulary.  A 
study  of  the  dictionary  should  be  work  for  the  language  as 
well  as  reading  classes.  At  least  one  suitable  selection 
should  be  memorized  each  month.  If  the  text  used  does 
not  give  sufficient  work  of  this  kind,  consult  the  reference 


LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE  125 

list  given  in  this  chapter.  As  the  First  Division  is  the  period 
of  imitation,  so  the  intermediate  division  is  the  habit  form- 
ing period.  It  is  well  for  the  teacher  to  remember  that  the 
students  will  probably  always  use  the  same  kind  of  oral 
and  written  language  that  they  are  using  when  they  leave 
this  division.  Good  English  is,  after  all,  largely  a  matter 
of  habit.  Habits  formed  during  these  early  years  are  hard 
to  break  after  children  reach  the  grammar  grades. 

THIRD  DIVISION 

The  sixth  and  seventh  year  students  of  this  division 
will  recite  together.  The  first  week  or  two  may  be  spent 
in  ascertaining  whether  more  drill  is  needed  in  the  work 
of  the  Second  Division  before  continuing  with  the  more 
formal  work  in  English.  As  long  as  incorrect  habits  of 
expression  exist,  continue  drilling  and  try  to  correct  them. 

If  the  students  are  to  be  given  a  year's  work  in  gram- 
mar, it  is  best  to  have  it  divided  and  give  half  each  year 
of  this  division.  As  already  stated,  it  is  better  not  to  give 
grammar  at  all  unless  you  are  sure  that  the  pupils  already 
have  that  which  is  so  much  more  necessary  for  them,  the 
ability  to  speak  and  write  good  English.  Most  high  schools 
now  prefer  a  certificate  in  composition  to  one  in  grammar, 
in  admitting  students  from  the  country  schools. 

It  is  best  to  use  the  same  series  of  language  books  that 
is  used  in  the  other  division.  Plan  to  have  at  least  one 
half  of  the  work  each  year  oral  and  written  language,  and, 
if  any  grammar  is  studied,  use  only  the  practical  parts. 
Some  very  interesting  discussions  in  constructions  are 
possible  in  high  school  English,  but  they  are  out  of  place 
in  the  elementary  schools.  Many  of  the  students  of  the 
rural  schools  will,  unfortunately,  never  get  any  further  in 
school  work,  and,  therefore,  the  course  in  English  should 


126  RURAL  EDUCATION 

be  such  as  to  give  them  the  most  practical  help  for  their 
life  work.  For  this  reason,  such  topics  as  business  letters, 
sending  a  telegram,  taking  notes,  and  debate  work  are  of 
importance.  Oral  and  written  descriptions,  how  to  select 
good  books  from  the  library,  the  ability  to  give  talks  be- 
fore the  school  on  current  events,  and  knowledge  of  sim- 
ple parliamentary  rules,  to  enable  one  to  take  charge  of  a 
business  meeting,  are  also  important  phases  of  the  work 
for  the  Third  Division. 

DRILLS  FOR  EXPRESSION 

The  following  drills  for  expression  are  suggested  for 
the  First  and  Second  Division.  Other  suitable  drills  for 
this  work  should  be  selected  by  the  teacher.  An  occasional 
exercise  of  this  kind  is  proper  even  in  the  Third  Division. 

Flash  Card  Exercise 

1.  My!  how  tall  you  are! 

2.  Run,  run,  old  dog! 

3.  Hurrah  for  the  flag! 

4.  Be  quick  mamma! 

5.  Please  let  me  go. 

6.  A  good  dog. 

7.  Run,  dog,  run! 

8.  What  a  dirty  face! 

9.  All  aboard!     All  aboard! 

10.  A  black  dog. 

11.  A  strong  dog. 

12.  Jump,  dog,  jump! 

13.  Quick!     Jack!     Quick,  I  say!     Jump  over  that  candle-stick! 

14.  Why  don't  I?     Don't  you  see  that  I  am  the  corporal? 

15.  Don't,  boys!     Don't  hurt  the  poor  turtle! 

16.  Bang!     Bang!     Fire  crackers  are  jolly  fun! 

17.  Heave  ho!     Up  with  it,  men! 

18.  Boys,  do  you  see  how  well  George  has  done  his  work? 

19.  Pig,  pig,  pig!     Come  here,  little  pig!     Come  and  get  some 

bread. 

The  above  expressions  should  be  printed  separately  on  suitable 
cards  to  be  used  as  flash  cards  for  rapid  drill  work. 


LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE  127 

Five  Little  Rabbits 

Five  little  rabbits  went  out  to  walk, 
They  liked  to  boast  as  well  as  talk. 
The  first  one  said,  "I  hear  a  gun;" 
The  next  one  said,  "I  will  not  run;" 
Another  one  said,  "Let's  stay  in  the  shade;" 
The  fourth  one  said,  "I'm  not  afraid." 
Bang-bang  went  a  gun! 
And  they  ran  every  one. 

Five  rabbits  may  be  cut  out  of  card  board  and  pasted  on  a  chart. 
Some  cotton  may  be  used  for  their  tails. 

The  Five  Kittens 

Five  furry  kittens  waiting  in  the  house. 
Softly!     Softly! 

They  think  they  hear  a  mouse; 
The  white  kitten  says,  "Be  still!" 
The  grey  kitten  says,  "We  will!" 
The  brown  kitten  says,  "Oh,  where?" 
The  striped  kitten  says,  "Take  care!" 
The  black  kitten  says,  "Right  here!" 
"Squeak!"  went  the  mouse. 
And  they  all  ran  under  the  house. 

Pansies 

There's  something  good  about  pansies 

That's  worth  your  while  to  know; 
The  more  they  are  plucked  and  given  away 

The  more  they  are  sure  to  grow. 

Henny  Penny's  Opinion 

"Henny  Penny,  I  wish  you'd  lay 
An  Easter  egg  in  your  nest  to-day. 
Henny  Penny,  what  do  you  say?" 
"Cut,  cut,  cut,  Ka-da-cut! 
The  very  idea  of  a  colored  shell! 
I  should  die  of  shame  if  I  laid  one — well, 
When  I  lay  an  egg  I  never  tell — 
Cut,  cut,  cut,  Ka-da-cut!" 

A  Secret 

"I  know  something,  but  I  sha'n't.tell, 
Cause  the  mother  bird  whispered  it  just  to  me, 
What  she'd  hidden  away  in  the  top  of  the  tree! 
And  by-and-by  when  the  birdies  are  old — 
Oh!  dear  me;  I've  gone  and  told." 


128  RURAL  EDUCATION 


Brindle  Cow 

Our  old  brindle  cow  stands  by  the  shed, 
And  this  is  the  way  she  shakes  her  head; 
Then  the  bell  on  her  neck  makes  such  a  noise, 
It  frightens  some  little  girls  and  boys. 
Now  look  at  her  eyes  so  brown  and  kind, 
And  a  gentler  cow  we  could  not  find. 
What  is  she  good  for?     Why,  don't  you  see? 
She  gives  us  the  milk  we  have  for  tea. 

Scaring  Santa  Claus 

Do  you  know  what  I'd  like  to  do  when  Santa  Claus  comes  knocking? 
I'd  like  to  squeeze  up  a  little,  and  hide  behind  my  stocking. 
Then,  when  he  opened  his  packet,  I'd  say  "Boo!"  just  for  fun, 
And  maybe  'twould  scare  him  so  that  he'd  leave  his  presents  and  run! 
Oh!  wouldn't  that  be  fun! 

Three  Little  Owls 

Three  little  owls  one  cold  winter  day, 

Crept  into  a  barn  half  full  of  hay; 

On  the  shingles,  like  bullets,  rattled  the  hail, 

And  the  wind  blew  around  with  a  mournful  wail; 

It  shook  the  doors  till  the  owls  cried,  "Whoo-oo?" 

And  the  wind  whistled  back,  "Yoo-oo." 

Blue  Jay 

Oh,  Blue  Jay  up  in  the  maple  tree, 

Shaking  your  throat  with  such  bursts  of  glee; 

Hpw'd  you  happen  to  be  so  blue? 

Did  you  steal  a  bit  of  the  lake  for  your  crest, 

And  fasten  blue  violets  into  your  vest? 

Tell  me,  I  pray  you, — tell  me  true. 

In  many  schools  memory  work  is  not  required  as  much 
as  it  should  be.  Even  though  the  child  may  not  understand 
at  the  time  all  he  is  memorizing,  these  stored  up  treasures 
will  become  working  capital  some  day.  The  First  and 
Second  Division  students  will  find  it  easy  to  commit  to 
memory.  The  list  for  the  First  Division  suggests  a  poem  for 
each  month  for  the  three  years.  The  order  can  be  arranged 
to  suit  the  teacher.  At  the  same  rate  only  two  thirds  of 
the  other  two  lists  would  need  be  selected  for  the  Second 


LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE  129 

and  Third  divisions.  It  is  difficult  to  find  so  many  classics 
in  one  series  of  books,  but  the  reading  sets  and  language 
books  furnish  most  of  them.  The  Williams'  Choice  Lit- 
erature Series  contains  many  of  those  suggested. 

A  few  nursery  rhymes  are  given,  as  it  is  sometimes  dif- 
ficult for  a  teacher  to  find  them.  Many  children  will  prob- 
ably know  most  of  them  before  coming  to  school.  So  much 
the  better,  as  they  will  be  treading  on  familiar  ground, 
and  the  foundation  for  language  work  will  be  laid.  Teach 
the  memory  work  to  the  whole  division  at  once,  and  let 
them  all  recite  at  once,  the  teacher  giving  the  selection 
with  them  at  first  for  expression.  Vary  this  by  having  a 
pupil  stand  in  front  and  lead  the  recitation.  Occasionally 
call  on  an  individual  for  a  selection. 

If  it  does  not  seem  possible  to  have  all  these  poems 
memorized,  the  teacher  may  select  as  many  as  can  be 
learned,  and  the  rest  should  be  carefully  read  and  studied. 
Every  student  has  a  right  to  part  of  the  world's  great 
literature,  before  leaving  the  elementary  school. 

NURSERY  CLASSICS 
Rock-a-bye  Baby 

Rock-a-bye  baby,  on  the  tree  top, 
When  the  wind  blows,  the  cradle  will  rock. 
When  the  bough  breaks,  the  cradle  will  fall. 
Down  will  come  baby,  bough,  cradle  and  all. 

See-saw  Margery  Daw 

See-saw,  Margery  Daw, 
Johnny  shall  have  a  new  master, 
He  shall  have  but  a  penny  a  day, 
Because  he  won't  work  any  faster. 

Jack  Horner 

Little  Jack  Horner  sat  in  a  corner 
Eating  a  Christmas  pie. 
He  put  in  his  thumb,  and  took  out  a  plum, 
And  said,  "O,  what  a  good  boy  am  I! 


130  RURAL  EDUCATION 


Hickory,  Dickory,  Dock 

Hickory,  dickory,  dock, 
The  mouse  ran  up  the  clock; 
The  clock  struck  one, 
Down  hie  did  run. 
Hickory,  dickory,  dock. 

Little  Miss  Muffet 

Little  Miss  Muffet 

Sat  on  a  tuffet, 

Eating  curds  and  whey. 

Along  came  a  spider, 

And  sat  down  beside  her, 

Which  frightened  Miss  Muffet  away. 

The  Little  Pigs 

This  little  pig  went  to  market, 
This  little  pig  stayed  home. 
This  little  pig  had  roast  beef, 
This  little  pig  had  none. 
This  little  pig  cried,  "Wee,  wee," 
All  the  way  home. 

Jack  and  Jill 

Jack  and  Jill  went  up  the  hill 
To  fetch  a  pail  of  water. 
Jack  fell  down  and  broke  his  crown, 
And  Jill  came  tumbling  after. 

Pat-a-cake 

"Pat-a-cake,  pat-a-cake,  baker's  man." 
"So  I  will,  master,  as  fast  as  I  can." 
"Pat  it,  and  prick  it,  and  mark  it  with  T. 
Put  it  in  the  oven,  for  Tommy  and  me." 

Little  Bo-peep 

Little  Bo-peep  has  lost  her  sheep, 
And  doesn't  know  where  to  find  them. 
Let  them  alone.     They  will  come  home 
And  bring  their  tails  behind  them. 

Tommy  Tucker 

Little  Tommy  Tucker  sings  for  his  supper, 
What  shall  he  eat?     White  bread  and  butter, 


LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE  131 


A  Song  of  Sixpence 

Sing  a  song  of  sixpence, 

A  pocket  full  of  rye. 
Four  and  twenty  black  birds, 

Baked  in  a  pie. 
When  the  pie  was  opened 

The  birds  began  to  sing. 
Wasn't  that  a  dainty  dish 

To  set  before  a  king? 

Pussy  Cat 

Pussy  cat,  pussy  cat, 

Where  have  you  been? 
I've  been  up  to  London 

To  look  at  the  queen. 
Pussy  cat,  pussy  cat, 

What  did  you  there? 
I  frightened  a  little  mouse 

Under  her  chair. 

Ding,  Dong,  Bell 

Ding,  dong,  bell!     Pussy's  in  the  well. 
Who  put  her  in?     Little  Tommy  Green. 
Who  pulled  her  out?     Big  John  Stout. 
What  a  naughty  boy  was  that, 
To  drown  poor  pussy  cat, 
Who  never  did  him  any  harm, 
But  killed  the  rats  in  father's  barn! 

Old  Mother  Hubbard 

Old  Mother  Hubbard 
Went  to  the  cupboard 

To  get  her  poor  dog  a  bone; 
But,  when  she  came  there, 
The  cupboard  was  bare, 

And  so  the  poor  dog  got  none. 


CHAPTER  XI 

WRITING,  SPELLING,  MUSIC  AND  ART 
WRITING 

In  this  age  of  typewriters  and  other  machines  to  do 
the  work  formerly  done  by  hand,  it  is  sometimes  said  that 
there  is  not  the  need  for  writing  that  there  used  to  be. 
There  is  a  growing  demand,  however,  for  clerks,  stenog- 
raphers and  others  who  can  write  a  plain,  business  hand. 
Writing  is  one  of  the  ' 'three  R's"  that  is  again  receiving, 
and  rightly  so,  a  great  deal  of  attention. 

Vertical  writing  has  come  and  gone.  The  day  of  the 
old  time  copy  book  has  passed.  In  fact,  the  revolution 
in  teaching  writing  is  apparently  over,  with  the  victory  on 
uhe  side  of  the  muscular  movement.  The  copy  book  never 
produced  good  writing.  Occasionally  a  good  teacher  of 
penmanship  would  put  enough  enthusiasm  into  the  work 
to  get  individuality  on  the  part  of  the  students.  More 
often,  however,  the  pupil  would  follow  the  copy  for  his 
first  line  or  two,  and  then  use  his  own  preceding  line  for  the 
copy.  This  habit  gave  the  poorest  line  at  the  bottom 
of  the  page,  where  the  best  should  have  been. 

Muscular  movement  writing  always  produces  individ- 
uality and  an  easy  movement.  The  fingers  should  not  be- 
come cramped  nor  the  arm  tired  after  writing  for  a  longer 
time  than  usual.  It  is  the  natural  method. 

Proper  position  is  a  prerequisite  to  good  movement. 
Students  who  fail  to  form  a  habit  of  correct  position  seldom 
become  good  writers.  The  pupil  should  sit  facing  the  desk, 
with  the  feet  squarely  on  the  floor,  the  back  straight  and 
leaning  slightly  forward,  shoulders  up  and  head  erect. 

132 


WRITING,  SPELLING,  MUSIC  AND  ART  133 

The  forearm  should  rest  lightly  on  the  desk,  the  right  elbow 
near  the  corner  of  the  desk.  The  left  hand  holds  the  paper 
in  the  proper  position.  Thus  it  can  be  seen  that  the  pupil 
sits  at  the  right  side  of  the  desk,  as  far  over  on  the  seat 
as  possible.  The  penholder  should  be  held  loosely  in  the 
fingers,  the  tip  of  the  first  finger  being  about  one  inch  from 
the  pen  point,  the  thumb  opposite  and  a  little  higher.  The 
third  and  fourth  fingers  rest  on  the  paper  and  slide  along  as 
the  hand  moves  from  left  to  right.  The  paper  is  placed 
at  such  an  angle  as  will  give  the  desired  slant  to  the  writ- 
ing when  the  pen  is  moving  almost  in  an  up  and  down  direc- 
tion. A  slant  of  eighteen  or  twenty  degrees  is  about  right. 

The  writing  materials  should  be  good.  Poor  paper  is 
a  serious  handicap.  Uniform  paper  about  eight  and  one 
half  by  eleven  inches,  a  good  holder,  and  a  medium  pen 
are  suggested.  Each  student  should  have  a  blotter,  of 
course,  and  a  large  envelope  to  hold  the  finished  speci- 
mens and  to  keep  them  clean  and  in  order. 

The  Palmer  Method  of  muscular  writing  is  one  of  the 
best  now  used  in  business  colleges  and  schools.  A  small, 
paper  covered  textbook  may  be  obtained  for  the  pupils.  It 
is  in  no  sense  a  copy  book.  Full  directions  for  position  and 
physical  exercises  for  relaxing  the  muscles  precede  the  les- 
sons in  writing.  Any  teacher  using  this  system  is  allowed 
a  free  correspondence  course  and  should  find  no  difficulty 
in  becoming  a  good  teacher  of  penmanship  in  a  short  time. 

There  is  some  difference  of  opinion  as  to  where  to  begin 
the  use  of  the  pen  and  ink.  Some  begin  in  the  first  year, 
some  in  the  second  and  some  in  the  third.  In  any  event 
the  student  should  have  learned  to  use  pen  and  ink  before 
finishing  the  First  Division.  Most  writing  methods  have 
cards  for  the  primary  students.  The  method  referred  to 
above  has  a  small  book  for  the  children  of  the  first  year  or 


134  RURAL  EDUCATION 

two  and  preceding  the  work  in  the  regular  textbook.  Stu- 
dents should  be  encouraged  to  practice  outside  the  regular 
class  work.  Writing  contests  and  small  prizes  or  some 
other  recognition  for  good  work  will  stimulate  interest. 

FIRST  DIVISION 

Great  care  should  be  taken  to  have  pupils  get  the  cor- 
rect position.  The  position  of  the  body  and  the  arm  move- 
ments should  become  habitual.  "Make  Haste  Slowly"  is 
a  good  motto  to  follow  in  beginning  this  work.  After  the 
proper  position  has  been  secured,  and  not  until  then,  begin 
with  the  use  of  ovals,  making  very  light  lines  and  gradually 
working  up  to  the  required  rate  of  speed.  Each  lesson 
should  be  preceded  by  physical  exercises  for  relaxation  of 
the  muscles.  A  half-dozen  things  under  position  should  be 
kept  in  mind  by  the  teacher.  They  are  the  feet,  back, 
arms,  hands,  paper  and  penholder.  The  last  should  be 
held  in  such  a  manner  that  it  will  point  back  of  the  right 
arm  about  half  way  between  the  shoulder  and  the  elbow. 
Spaces  should  be  marked  off  with  dots  on  the  paper.  Plan 
to  fill  these  spaces  with  just  so  many  ovals  or  lines  accord- 
ing to  the  exercise.  At  first  the  teacher  should  do  the  count- 
ing, but  gradually  the  student  should  learn  to  do  this  for 
himself.  Count  numerically  part  of  the  time,  but  use  words 
when  they  will  be  helpful,  as,  light,  light,  light,  light,  and 
close,  close,  close,  close.  Keep  up  the  counting,  and,  at  the 
same  time,  by  the  use  of  such  words  give  directions. 

Blackboard  work  should  be  done,  but  not  over-done. 
A  good  plan  is  to  send  about  half  of  the  class  to  the  board 
while  the  other  half  do  the  same  work  at  their  seats.  Have 
pupils  draw  three  straight  lines,  free-hand,  on  about  the 
same  level  as  the  eyes.  Mark  off  spaces  and  fill  the  first 
one  with  up  and  down  strokes  and  the  second  with  ovals. 


WRITING,   SPELLING,  MUSIC  AND   ART  135 

Try  to  make  eighty  strokes  in  eight  inches  of  board  space, 
also  the  same  number  of  ovals.  When  half  of  the  writing 
period  is  up,  have  those  at  the  seats  exchange  with  those 
at  the  blackboard.  About  four  hundred  up  and  down 
strokes  should  be  made  in  two  minutes  after  a  reasonable 
rate  of  speed  has  been  required.  Work  for  movement  and 
speed  at  first.  Get  these,  and  the  letter  formations  will  take 
care  of  themselves  a  little  later.  By  the  beginning  of  the 
second  year  students  should  be  able  to  write  their  names 
and  a  few  simple  words  by  means  of  the  muscular  move- 
ment. The  exercises  and  drills  in  the  textbook  used  should 
be  carefully  studied  by  the  pupil  before  they  are  applied  in 
the  writing  lesson.  Students  should  be  taught  the  letter 
formations  and  the  writing  of  words  systematically  from  the 
first.  Some  teachers  get  good  work  in  drills,  but  fail  totally 
in  getting  students  to  apply  these  to  their  writing.  Do  not 
make  the  mistake  of  expecting  much  written  work  from  this 
division  in  their  other  subjects.  It  is  a  common  fault  among 
teachers  to  require  too  much  written  work. 

SECOND   DIVISION 

Continue  with  the  drills  for  position  and  movement  and 
increase  the  speed.  In  this  division  special  emphasis  should 
be  laid  upon  the  application  of  movement  to  all  the  letter 
forms.  This  is  the  most  difficult  part  of  the  teaching  of 
penmanship,  and  can  be  obtained  only  by  applying  the  drills 
used  to  the  actual  handwriting  of  the  student.  A  failure  is 
seldom  made  in  the  drill  work;  it  is  usually  in  the  applica- 
tion. The  drills  in  movement  are  merely  aids  in  writing 
and  must  always  be  regarded  as  the  means  to  an  end  but 
not  the  end.  By  the  time  the  student  finishes  this  division 
he  should  be  able  to  use  muscular  movement  in  all  of  his 
written  work. 


136  RURAL  EDUCATION 

THIRD  DIVISION 

Relaxation  exercises  and  drills  should  be  given  for  a  min- 
ute or  two  before  each  written  lesson.  Occasionally  send 
half  of  the  entire  school  to  the  blackboard  while  the  other 
half  use  pen  and  ink  at  their  desks.  Comparison  of  the  same 
work  will  often  stimulate  interest  and  create  a  certain  rivalry 
between  the  divisions  of  the  school.  Keep  up  the  counting 
to  develop  speed  and  uniformity.  The  teacher  should  be 
able  to  illustrate  all  the  writing  lessons  at  the  blackboard. 
Any  new  drill  or  its  application  must  be  illustrated.  Do 
not  be  misled  in  thinking  that  the  teacher  can  get  results  in 
something  she  herself  can  not  do.  It  is  very  necessary  that 
the  teacher  become  entirely  familiar  with  the  manual  of 
whatever  writing  system  she  may  be  using.  If  possible, 
ten  or  fifteen  minutes  a  day  should  be  spent  on  actual  prac- 
tice before  demonstrating  the  work  at  the  blackboard. 

It  is  difficult  to  give  any  definite  directions  for  just  the 
amount  of  work  to  be  covered  in  each  division,  as  so  much 
depends  upon  the  length  of  time  the  pupils  have  been  using 
muscular  movement,  upon  the  competency  of  the  teacher, 
upon  the  ability  of  the  class  and  upon  the  amount  of  time 
that  can  be  devoted  to  the  subject  daily.  If  the  method 
mentioned  above  is  in  use,  the  student  should  be  encouraged 
to  work  for  buttons  offered  as  prizes  for  good  work,  and  for 
the  diplomas  given  when  the  student  becomes  proficient 
enough  in  his  handwriting  and  has  a  working  knowledge  of 
the  textbook  in  writing. 

SPELLING 

Spelling,  unfortunately,  has  not  enjoyed  the  popularity 
that  it  once  had.  In  the  good  old  times  of  our  grand- 
parents the  spelling  match  and  the  singing  school  were 
close  rivals  of  the  quilting  party  and  the  husking  bee.  It 


WRITING,   SPELLING,   MUSIC  AND   ART  137 

was  indeed  an  honor  to  be  the  best  speller.  While  spelling 
was  useful  in  those  days,  it  is  a  necessity  now.  There  are 
undoubtedly  more  good  spellers  in  the  schools  now  than 
ever  before,  but  there  are  also  more  poor  spellers. 

Interest  is  the  keynote.  Spelling  is  drudgery  to  most 
students,  if  the  lesson  always  consists  of  a  list  of  written 
words.  Learning  to  spell  is  largely  a  process  of  the  memory. 
Some  children  are  eye-minded.  Such  will  get  their  spelling 
lesson  best  by  studying  the  printed  page  and  writing  the 
lesson.  Others  are  ear-minded.  These  will  best  get  the 
lesson  by  spelling  the  words  aloud  and  by  hearing  others 
spell  in  an  oral  recitation.  This  difference  shows  the  neces- 
sity for  both  oral  and  written  work.  There  would  seem 
to  be  no  excuse  for  the  pupil  or  for  the  teacher  who  will 
allow  a  pupil  to  leave  the  elementary  school  unable  to 
spell  the  words  he  uses  in  ordinary  conversation.  Many 
a  boy  or  girl  who  could  not  spell  in  school  goes  into  a  place 
of  business  to  work,  and  soon  learns  to  spell  there,  because 
the  position  would  otherwise  be  lost.  The  need  is  seen  and 
the  person  becomes  interested  at  once.  It  is  doubtful 
whether  interest  can  be  created  by  keeping  children  after 
school  every  day,  if  they  miss  a  word  or  two.  Of  course 
a  good  teacher  is  never  guilty  of  this  practice,  but  there 
are  many  others  who  are.  Make  the  school  work  more  like 
real  business  work. 

Simplified  spelling  has  been  receiving  more  or  less  atten- 
tion by  educators  and  editors.  The  agitation  has  undoubt- 
edly done  much  good,  but  few  definite  results  have  yet  been 
attained.  While  the  Committee  on  Simplified  Spelling 
made  many  sensible  recommendations,  many  of  the  lead- 
ing publications  do  not  yet  use  the  new  spelling,  and  few 
publishers  feel  that  the  matter  is  sufficiently  settled  to 
warrant  their  using  the  revised  forms.  It  can,  perhaps, 


138  RURAL  EDUCATION 

hardly  be  expected  that  adults  will  change  from  the  way 
they  have  been  accustomed  to  spell.  This  matter  should 
be  taken  up  in  the  schools  and  all  simplified  spelling  recog- 
nized by  authorities  should  be  taught  there. 

Special  devices  are  sometimes  used  for  keeping  up 
interest  in  spelling.  An  honor  roll  on  which  the  names 
of  the  best  spellers  are  placed  at  the  end  of  each  week  or 
month  is  one  of  these  devices.  Encourage  students  and  par- 
ents to  inspect  names  on  this  roll.  The  old-fashioned  lines 
for  oral  work,  allowing  students  to  go  to  the  head  of  the 
class,  is  still  interesting.  It  is  always  best  to  hold  stu- 
dents responsible  for  observing  mis-spelled  words.  For  ex- 
ample, if  the  person  at  the  head  of  the  line  misses  a  word, 
the  teacher  says  nothing  about  it,  but  pronounces  a  new 
word  to  the  next  pupil.  If  this  person  notices  the  mistake 
of  the  first  and  spells  it  correctly,  he  takes  his  place  at  the 
head  of  the  line  and  the  third  student  spells  the  word  pro- 
nounced by  the  teacher.  If  the  second  does  not  notice  the 
mis-spelled  word,  the  first  person  in  the  line  that  notices 
it  and  spells  it  correctly,  takes  his  place  at  the  "head." 
Sometimes  a  mis-spelled  word  will  be  overlooked  by  several 
students  in  the  line  and  then  spelled  correctly  by  some  one 
near  the  "foot,"  who  goes  ahead  of  the  first  one  who  mis- 
spelled the  word.  This  makes  the  game  interesting,  even 
exciting  at  times.  Students  are  always  interested  in 
"spelling  down."  They  should  be  allowed  to  spell  down 
as  frequently  as  once  a  week,  as  an  excellent  means  of  con- 
ducting oral  drills.  A  banner  may  be  made  and  given  to 
the  division  making  the  best  average  for  the  week.  As 
soon  as  another  division  has  a  better  average,  it  gets  the 
banner.  Spelling  matches  between  the  schools  should  be 
encouraged,  letting  a  team  of  three  or  five  of  the  best  spel- 
lers in  the  school  compete  with  a  similar  team  from  a  neigh- 


WRITING,   SPELLING,  MUSIC  AND   ART  139 

boring  school.  If  these  matches  are  held  in  the  evening, 
parents  will  have  opportunity  to  be  present.  The  schools 
could  compete  for  the  best  specimens  in  writing  at  the 
same  time,  if  desired.  Such  contests  would  be  an  excellent 
way  of  interesting  the  community. 

State  contests  in  spelling  are  assisting  in  the  spelling 
movement  in  some  sections  of  the  country.  It  was  my 
privilege  to  act  as  one  of  the  judges  recently,  in  the  Minne- 
sota State  Contest  where  the  best  spellers  representing 
about  sixty  counties  competed  for  prizes  offered  by  the 
State  Fair  Association.  A  written  contest  list  of  one  hundred 
words  was  first  given.  Representative  words  were  taken 
from  a  half-dozen  spellers,  no  catch  words  being  used.  Those 
handing  in  perfect  papers  were  required  to  write  a  new  list, 
until  one  person  had  the  highest  score.  Naturally  each 
list  of  words  was  made  a  little  harder  than  that  which  pre- 
ceded it.  After  the  written  work  was  over,  there  was  held 
an  old-fashioned  oral  spelling  down  contest  which  took 
about  an  hour  and  a  half  to  "floor"  the  best  speller.  Be- 
fore the  state  meeting,  preliminary  contests  had  been 
held  in  the  counties  and  the  representative  at  the  State 
Fair  was  the  champion  in  his  own  county. 

A  spelling  book  in  the  hands  of  a  pupil  is  indispensable. 
Some  teachers  prefer  to  select  their  own  spelling  lists  from 
other  subjects.  It  is  well  to  take  words  from  the  geog- 
raphy, history  and  reading  lessons  for  supplementary  work 
in  spelling,  but  it  is  a  waste  of  time  not  to  use  a  spelling 
book.  There  are  a  few  rules  in  every  speller  that  the  stu- 
dents should  be  required  to  memorize.  It  should  be  remem- 
bered, however,  that  spelling  can  not  be  learned  by  rule. 
It  is  a  memory  subject  and  as  such  should  be  emphasized 
during  the  memory  age.  Students  should  be  taught  how  to 
study  a  spelling  lesson.  There  will  probably  always  be 


140  RURAL  EDUCATION 

words  in  the  list  that  some  pupils  can  already  spell.  The 
student  should  check  these  words  and  spend  no  time  on  them. 

Dictation  used  to  be  given  as  a  part  of  the  work  in  spel- 
ling much  more  than  it  is  at  present.  It  is  one  of  the  best 
ways  of  correlating  spelling  with  language.  Capital  letters 
and  punctuation  as  well  as  the  spelling  are  emphasized  in 
dictation.  Suitable  selections  may  be  taken  from  the  read- 
ing lessons,  if  there  are  not  enough  in  the  spelling  books. 

Dictionary  work  should  always  be  a  part  of  the.  course 
in  spelling.  In  connection,  a  definite  time  should  be  set 
aside  for  learning  the  use  of  the  dictionary.  Students 
often  waste  time  looking  up  a  word,  because  they  can 
hot  use  the  dictionary  to  good  advantage.  A  little  pam- 
phlet "The  Dictionary  Habit"  by  Cody,  is  excellent  for 
such  study  and  may  be  obtained  free  from  the  publishers 
of  Webster's  Dictionary.  A  pamphlet  should  be  secured 
for  each  student  of  the  Second  Division.  Diacritical  marks, 
prefixes,  suffixes  and  root  words,  should  all  be  given  attention 
in  connection  with  the  language  lessons. 

Three  divisions  are  sufficient  into  which  to  divide  the 
entire  school  for  the  work  in  spelling.  I  have  seen  eight 
spelling  classes  in  a  rural  school  where  three  would  have 
been  plenty.  The  first  year  students  should  not  have  any 
spelling,  the  next  two  may  be  combined  for  the  First  Divi- 
sion. The  four  and  five-year  students  will  constitute  the 
Second  Division  and  the  others  the  Third  Division. 
There  should  be  but  the  one  written  lesson  for  all  three 
divisions.  If  the  lesson  averages  ten  words  for  each  divi- 
sion, a  period  of  ten  minutes  is  plenty  for  the  spelling  reci- 
tation. The  lesson  may  be  conducted  as  follows:  The 
teacher  pronounces  a  word  for  the  First  Division.  The 
next  word  pronounced  is  for  the  Second  Division  and  the 
third  word  is  for  the  Third  Division.  By  this  time  the 


WRITING,  SPELLING,  MUSIC  AND  ART  141 

First  Division  word  has  been  written  and  a  new  word  can 
be  pronounced.  The  Second  and  Third  Divisions'  words 
follow  in  order.  In  this  way  all  thirty  words  have  been 
given  to  the  three  classes  in  the  same  length  of  time  it  ordi- 
narily takes  to  conduct  one  spelling  lesson.  A  teacher  with 
seven  or  eight  grades  of  students  must  look  for  special 
devices  such  as  this  to  save  time. 

FIRST  DIVISION 

No  spelling  books  should  be  used.  Lists  of  words  may 
be  selected  from  the  reading  classes  and  placed  on  the 
board.  Do  not  make  the  mistake  of  giving  too  many 
words.  Three  new  words  learned  each  day  will  produce  a 
list  of  over  five  hundred  words  learned  during  the  year. 
Enough  review  words  may  be  given  each  day  to  make  the 
total  number  ten,  if  this  is  desirable.  When  the  written  work 
is  being  done,  see  that  the  students  write  to  the  best  of 
their  ability. 

SECOND  DIVISION 

Spelling  tablets  for  the  written  work  should  be  used  in 
both  the  Second  and  Third  Divisions.  See  that  these  tablets 
are  uniform.  Sheets  should  not  be  torn  off  after  the  written 
lesson,  but  should  be  saved  for  oral  review.  An  oral  spell- 
ing period  of  twenty  minutes  once  a  week  is  provided  in  the 
suggested  program.  The  words  from  several  written  les- 
sons can  be  used  at  this  time.  Any  good  speller  may  be 
used  in  this  division  and  the  work  followed  in  the  order 
given.  Begin  the  use  of  the  dictionary.  Give  supple- 
mentary spelling  words  from  other  lessons  and  continue  by 
assigning  lessons  from  the  spelling  book  three  times  a  week 
and  supplementary  words  twice  a  week. 


142  RURAL  EDUCATION 

THIRD  DIVISION 

Any  spelling  book  may  be  used,  beginning  with  work 
for  the  sixth  year  and  completing  the  text.  A  business 
speller  similiar  to  those  used  in  business  colleges  is  prefer- 
able to  the  ordinary  grade  speller  for  this  division.  Such 
a  book  is  complete  in  itself  and  gives  only  such  words  as 
are  used  in  ordinary  business.  More  emphasis  is  laid  on 
learning  rules  of  spelling,  the  derivation  of  words  and  dic- 
tation. Try  to  get  students  of  this  division  to  take  pride 
in  perfect  spelling  lessons.  They  should  realize  that,  if  they 
do  not  learn  spelling  correctly  before  finishing  the  common 
school,  they  will  probably  always  be  poor  spellers.  The 
contests  with  neighboring  schools  and  the  county  and 
state  contests  referred  to  above  should  be  of  interest  to 
these  honor  students. 

MUSIC 

The  course  in  music  is  offered  for  those  who  desire  to 
teach  this  subject  in  the  rural  schools.  It  is  sometimes 
thought  to  be  almost  impossible  to  get  satisfactory  results 
in  music  without  a  special  teacher.  This  idea  is  only  par- 
tially true.  Music  is  being  taught  with  excellent  results 
in  some  country  schools,  where  the  teacher  has  a  working 
knowledge  of  music  and  is  enthusiastic  over  it.  If  music 
is  not  taught  as  a  regular  subject,  then  rote  songs  should 
be  given  for  morning  exercises,  as  the  children  should  be 
encouraged  to  sing.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  a  mistake  to 
teach  rote  songs,  if  they  are  learning  to  read  notes.  Good 
music  reading,  like  other  reading,  can  be  acquired  only  by 
putting  into  practice  the  principles  learned. 

The  mechanics  of  music  can  be  made  even  more  inter- 
esting than  the  mechanics  of  reading  or  language.  The 
most  successful  of  the  special  devices  for  teaching  music  to 


WRITING,  SPELLING,  MUSIC  AND  ART  143 

young  children  that  has  come  within  the  observation  of 
the  author  is  the  Congdon  series.  Each  child  is  furnished 
with  a  desk  chart  and  disks.  The  chart  is  merely  a  narrow 
piece  of  cardboard  containing  a  staff.  The  small,  black 
disks  are  used  at  first  to  locate  the  lines  and  spaces  as  called 
for  by  the  teacher.  Later,  they  are  to  be  used  as  notes 
and  placed  as  directed.  As  soon  as  one  chart  is  finished 
another  is  taken  up. 


Figure  10.       Teaching  music  to  first  year  students  by  the  note  method,  showing 
the  charts  and  disks. 

A  serious  mistake  often  made  in  teaching  music  is  to 
have  all  the  pupils  sing  together.  Just  as  concert  reading 
in  English  is  wise  occasionally,  so  chorus  singing  is  desir- 
able; but  the  student  will  learn  to  sing,  as  he  learns  to 
read,  only  by  individual  work.  This  will  seem  hard  at 
first,  but,  if  the  teacher  is  both  insistent  and  persistent,  the 
child  will  soon  think  no  more  of  singing  alone  than  he 
thinks  of  reading  alone.  Good  chorus  work  can  come  only 
from  good  individual  work, 


144  RURAL  EDUCATION 

The  scales  should  be  taught  with  the  mechanical  work 
of  the  charts,  singing  downward  first.  Have  both  class 
and  individual  singing.  An  interesting  way  to  teach  the 
scales  is  by  scale  songs.  That  is,  starting  with  the  tone  of 
upper  "do,"  sing  the  words  and  syllables  of  the  scale  song 
to  lower  "do"  which  will  be  the  end  of  the  first  line.  Re- 
turn in  the  same  manner,  from  lower  to  upper,  using  the 
words  of  the  second  line.  Often  before  they  realize  it, 
children,  who  think  they  cannot  sing  the  scales,  have  them 
learned  by  using  the  scale  songs.  A  few  are  here  suggested. 
The  teacher  can  add  to  the  list  for  variety. 

Scale  Songs 

Hear  the  school  bell  call  us  to-day. 
"Come,  O  come!"  now  it  seems  to  say. 

Swing-ing  high,  swing-ing  to  and  fro, 
High  up,  up  in  the  air  I  go. 

Thanks-giving  day  will  soon  be  here; 
It  comes  around  but  once  a  year. 

If  I  could  only  have  my  way, 

We'd  have  Thanks-giv-ing  ev-ry  day. 

Birdies  in  Winter  must  be  fed; 
Let  the  children  scatter  their  bread. 

Snow  flakes  falling,  snow  birds  calling, 
"Wint-er  is  here." 
(do,  mi,  sol,  do.) 

Monotones  are  largely  imaginary.  "Out-of -tunes"  are 
frequent,  especially  in  lower  grade  pupils  or  those  who  have 
not  studied  music.  Probably  only  two  or  three  real  mono- 
tones will  be  found  in  two  or  three  hundred  children,  but 
more  than  half  of  a  room  may  not  be  able  to  carry  a  tune, 
— "out-of-tunes."  The  teacher  must  test  each  child  at  the 
first  of  the  year  to  determine  where  he  should  sit  for  music. 


WRITING,  SPELLING,  MUSIC  AND  ART  145 

"Out-of-tunes"  can  usually  be  corrected  in  a  short  time,  and 
even  monotones  can  always  be  cured  in  time. 

The  whole  note,  half  note,  and  quarter  note  should  be 
taught  during  the  first  part  of  the  course.  As  soon  as  the 
scales  are  learned,  the  child  makes  ''pictures"  of  the  tones 
and  calls  them  notes.  Make  all  the  mechanical  work  play 
at  first. 

A  music  primer  should  be  introduced  the  second  part  of 
the  first  year,  and  a  series  of  music  readers  follow.  The 
pupils  are  held  responsible  for  counting  the  time  from  the 
first.  Blackboard  and  written  seat  work  should  accompany 
the  other  work. 

The  school  may  be  divided  into  three  divisions  for  the 
work  in  music  as  in  the  other  subjects.  After  songs  have 
been  learned  by  note  by  the  advanced  divisions,  they  may 
be  sung  by  the  entire  school,  the  First  Division  children  learn- 
ing them  by  note.  The  work  suggested  for  each  division 
follows : 

FIRST  DIVISION 

Material  Used:  Congdon's  key  desk  charts  and  disks; 
the  "Congdon  Primer  Number  One,"  some  paper  with  lines 
and  spaces  for  written  work  and  one  or  two  simple  music 
readers  for  supplementary  work. 

Time  for  Recitation:  This  will  depend  upon  the  amount 
of  time  that  can  be  profitably  given  to  music  in  a  small 
school  where  all  grades  of  work  are  not  represented.  More 
time  may  be  found  for  such  work  as  music  and  drawing  than 
in  a  large  school.  If  from  ten  to  fifteen  minutes  a  day,  twice 
a  week,  can  be  devoted  to  the  work,  it  will  be  well  worth 
while  to  introduce  music. 

Seating  the  Pupils:  Always  place  the  monotones  and 
"out-of-tunes"  in  the  front  seats.  Those  who  can  carry  the 


146  RURAL  EDUCATION 

tune  should  be  seated  in  the  rear.  The  students  in  the  front 
seats  will  not  disturb  those  who  can  sing,  and  they  will  be 
encouraged  by  hearing  the  others  who  are  back  of  them. 

Voices:  Keep  the  voices  soft  and  the  tones  sweet.  Do 
not  allow  any  loud  singing  or  one  or  two  students  to  be 
heard  above  all  the  others. 

Order  of  Presentation  of  the  Work:  When  the  subject 
is  introduced  all  of  the  First  Division  pupils  should  study 
the  charts  and  disks.  Teach  the  child  to  place  a  disk  at  the 
call  of  the  first  line,  second  line,  etc.,  then,  using  the  same 
chart,  the  spaces  may  be  called  in  the  same  manner  and  the 
disks  placed.  After  the  lines  and  spaces  have  been  learned 
in  this  way,  it  is  well  to  mix  them  and  call  either  lines  or 
spaces.  It  will  be  found  that  students  are  very  fond  of  this 
kind  of  work  and  the  mechanics  of  music  become  simple. 
The  scales  should  next  be  taught,  beginning  with  upper  "do" 
and  singing  downward  at  first.  The  scale  songs  suggested 
above  should  be  used  in  teaching  scales.  Have  individual 
singing  as  well  as  class  singing. 

Using  chart  number  two,  teach  the  use  of  the  clef  sign. 
Use  "key  of  F"  chart  and  ask  the  pupils  to  tell  the  differ- 
ence. Have  a  child  go  to  the  board  and  draw  the  flat  sign. 
Ask  another  child  to  tell  where  "do"  is  found  on  this  chart. 
Place  a  staff  on  the  board  and  ask  the  pupil  to  draw  a  disk 
in  the  "do"  place.  Do  not  allow  students  to  call  the  disks 
"notes."  Teach  intervals  by  "rote"  and  have  pupils  place 
the  disk  and  sing  after  the  teacher.  When  the  tonic  chord 
has  been  learned,  the  pupils  should  be  required  to  sing  alone. 
The  child  may  be  asked  to  go  to  the  board  and  point  to  tones 
on  the  staff  and  sing  both  tones  and  scale  songs.  While  one 
child  is  at  the  board  doing  this,  those  at  their  seats  may 
place  the  disks  on  the  desk  charts.  Proceed  in  this  manner 
through  several  scales.  The  scale  songs  may  be  varied  by 


WRITING,  SPELLING,  MUSIC  AND   ART  147 

singing  in  "long  tones/'  Require  the  pupils  to  beat  four 
times  with  the  pointer  finger  of  the  right  hand;  then  use 
"half  tones"  and  "quarter  tones."  Make  pictures  of  these 
tones  and  call  the  pictures  "notes."  Use  numerous  scale 
songs.  Invent  some  to  suit  the  day  on  which  the  lesson  is 
given.  The  children  will  feel  as  if  they  are  playing  a  game; 
but,  if  the  work  is  properly  taught,  they  will  be  mastering 
the  mechanics  of  music  that  the  older  student  usually  finds 
so  hard  and  distasteful. 

After  about  a  half  a  year  of  work  as  outlined  above,  the 
student  should  be  ready  for  a  music  primer.  Have  the 
books  laid  flat  open  on  the  desk  and  have  the  pointer  finger 
of  the  right  hand  ready  to  beat  the  time.  Begin  each  song 
by  individual  work.  Start  with  the  child  in  the  back  seat 
and  at  the  same  time  have  the  pupil  in  front  of  him  stand 
and  be  ready  to  sing  when  the  teacher  says  "next." 

Make  no  comment  on  the  singing;  but,  when  one  phrase 
has  been  sung  correctly,  have  the  entire  class  sing.  Say 
nothing  about  the  time  signature,  unless  a  pupil  notices  it. 
In  that  case  it  may  be  explained.  Continue  with  the  work 
from  the  primer  for  the  balance  of  the  school  year.  By  the 
end  of  the  first  year  after  music  has  been  introduced  into 
the  schools,  the  children  should  know  the  "pictures"  of  the 
whole  note,  half  note,  and  the  quarter  note  and  how  many 
beats  for  each.  The  outline  just  given  is  that  usually 
covered  during  the  first  year  in  a  graded  school.  It  should 
constitute  the  work  of  the  First  Division  for  the  first  year. 

The  second  year  work  of  the  First  Division  should  begin 
with  a  review  of  the  mechanics  of  the  first  year.  The  beat- 
ing of  time  should  be  carefully  worked  out.  Do  not  allow 
the  least  inaccuracy  in  time.  Tones  will  probably  not  be 
perfect  at  first,  the  class  may  be  out  of  tone,  but  they  need 
not  be  out  of  time.  Every  pupil  probably  feels  rhythm, 


148  RURAL  EDUCATION 

but  he  must  be  taught  to  see  it.  It  is  well  to  call  attention 
to  the  new  steps,  but  ask  pupils  to  show  them  to  you.  More 
written  work  should  be  done  at  the  board  and  seats.  Do 
not  allow  students  to  take  books  to  the  board,  as  the  work 
there  should  be  either  from  memory  or  original.  The  teach- 
er should  work  hard  with  the  "out-of-tunes"  and  "mono- 
tones." Have  them  sing  alone  frequently,  and  then  let 
other  children  who  can  carry  the  tune  assist.  In  order  to 
make  the  students  independent,  the  teacher  should  do  as 
little  singing  during  the  music  recitation  as  possible.  At 
the  morning  exercises,  however,  the  teacher  should  lead. 

Individual  singing  should  be  emphasized  during  the 
latter  part  of  the  course  for  the  First  Division.  At 
least  a  half  of  the  music  period  should  be  devoted  to  this. 
The  teacher  should  work  for  accuracy  and  pure  tones. 
Dictation  exercises  in  music  writing  may  be  given  once 

a  week. 

SECOND  DIVISION 

If  the  students  of  this  division  have  not  studied  music, 
they  must  first  take  up  the  work  as  outlined  for  the  First 
Division.  In  fact,  the  entire  school  can  take  this  work 
together  when  music  is  first  introduced.  As  the  mechan- 
ics should  have  been  learned  in  the  First  Division,  most  of 
the  time  of  the  Second  Division  can  be  given  to  two  and 
three  part  singing  as  outlined  in  any  good  music  series. 
Aim  to  establish  a  perfect  knowledge  of  note  values  and  in- 
tervals. Carefully  test  each  voice  before  assigning  a  pupil 
to  his  part  in  the  part  singing.  Use  the  same  plan  in  having 
the  reading  and  singing  done  as  in  the  First  Division, 
that  is,  begin  with  the  students  in  the  back  seats.  Four 
pupils  will  be  standing  at  once,  two  singing  and  the  other 
two  ready  to  sing.  When  three  part  work  is  taken  up, 
three  will  sing  and  three  will  be  standing  ready  to  sing. 


WRITING,  SPELLING,  MUSIC  AND  ART  149 

The  real  names  of  lines  and  spaces  may  be  taught  in  this 
division,  as  well  as  the  keys  by  their  proper  names.  Dic- 
tation exercises  and  simple  composition  should  be  required. 
All  monotones  can  very  probably  be  cured  before  they  reach 
this  division,  and  will  give  little  further  concern. 

THIRD  DIVISION 

Two  and  three  part  singing  from  the  music  books  should 
be  emphasized,  if  the  students  are  old  mough.  Even  four 
part  work  may  be  studied.  If  there  are  a  few  boys  four- 
teen or  fifteen  years  old,  they  will  enjoy  learning  to  sing 
the  bass.  Some  supplementary  leaflets  and  music  books 
should  be  obtained  for  this  division,  if  possible.  Encour- 
age part  singing  at  morning  exercises,  school  programs 
and  special  entertainments  held  occasionally  in  the  evening. 

A  mark  for  music  should  be  given  the  student,  the 
same  as  for  any  other  subject.  This  will  encourage  him 
and  the  parent  will  be  able  to  know  what  progress  is  being 
made,  as  the  mark  will  be  seen  when  the  report  card  is 
signed.  Finally,  the  success  of  a  course  in  music  in  the 
rural  schools  will  depend  upon  the  enthusiasm  and  abil- 
ity of  the  teacher. 

ART 

The  fact  that  few  rural  teachers  are  artists  is  no  reason 
why  the  pupils  cannot  be  given  sufficient  instruction  in 
art  to  enable  them  to  appreciate  aesthetics.  If  a  full 
program  will  not  permit  regular  class  work,  much  can 
be  done  incidently  and  by  correlation  with  other  lessons. 

Beauty  is  universal.  It  is  always  a  unit  and  is  seen 
with  an  unfocused  eye,  and  the  test  of  beauty  is  to  ignore 
its  parts  and  see  the  whole.  Parts  of  a  landscape  should 
be  studied  technically  and  separately,  but  later  the  stu- 


150  RURAL  EDUCATION 

dent  must  learn  to  unify  and  see  the  entire  scene  within 
the  field  of  vision.  He  becomes  big  when  he  can  lose  the 
parts  and  see  the  unit.  Young  children  may  be  taught 
many  things  in  linear  perspective  by  studying  pictures 
containing  roads,  fences,  telegraph  poles,  etc.  They  can 
also  readily  be  taught  that  objects  change  in  the  loss  of 
character  in  increased  distance.  Older  pupils  will  learn 
the  atmospheric  changes  in  color  by  increased  distance. 

Outdoor  work  in  spring  and  fall  is  best.  Drawings  of 
a  house,  barn,  shed,  haystack,  corncrib,  hoghouse,  tree,  or 
a  simple  landscape  may  be  presented  once  a  week,  and 
part  of  a  class  period  used  for  criticism.  This  should  be 
constructive,  so  the  pupils  will  not  be  offended,  but  rather 
glad  to  find  wherein  they  lack  power. 

Silhouettes  of  plants  behind  the  curtain,  and  brush 
silhouettes  of  poses  are  good.  One  basis  of  interest  is  to 
have  things  original,  as  subjects  for  drawing,  and  students 
like  to  make  pose  drawings.  A  mistake  is  sometimes 
made  in  allowing  primary  students  to  do  too  much  pencil 
work.  They  seem  to  be  able  to  work  only  in  sharp  outlines 
and  get  into  a  bad  habit  from  which  it  is  hard  to  break  away. 
Things  are  seen  in  mass — in  light  and  shade,  and  pencil 
work  is  not  advised  until  this  work  can  be  done. 

Outlines  may  be  used  in  drawing,  but  should  be  so  light 
as  to  be  only  a  guide,  and,  when  the  drawing  is  completed, 
the  outline  should  become  entirely  absorbed  in  the  mass 
without  use  of  the  eraser.  A  foundation  for  a  drawing  is 
important  and  the  pupil  must  throw  some  leading  lines 
and  then  judge  carefully  his  ratios  and  proportions  before 
proceeding  with  his  work. 

Color  is  the  first  appeal  to  the  child.  Animal  life  is 
next,  and  action  follows.  These  interests  must  be  taken  into 
consideration  in  teaching  art.  Begin  witli  a  study  of  color 


WRITING,   SPELLING,  MUSIC  AND  ART  151 

with  disks  and  charts.  The  color  wheel  will  show  that 
green  is  two  colors,  purple  two  colors,  and  orange  two 
colors.  While  the  student  cannot  be  taken  far  into  the 
triad  of  color,  he  can  be  shown  that  brown  is  a  union  of  red 
and  blue  and  yellow.  For  the  study  of  light  and  shade 
the  pupils  should  have  individual  sets  of  the  cube,  sphere, 
pyramid,  cone  and  cylinder  on  the  desks. 

Copies  of  the  great  masters  should  be  carefully  graded 
from  the  animal  pictures  of  Landseer  and  Bonheur  to  the 
classics  of  Rome.  Perry  prints  are  available  at  one  cent 
and  up.  These  copies  properly  graded  will  give  new  stud- 
ies for  each  division.  Aesthetics  of  art  may  be  taught 
up  to  about  the  seventh  year,  when  students  become  more 
practical.  They  should  then  be  given  the  application 
of  art  to  industrial  life.  For  the  boys  mechanical  drawing 
and  manual  training  serve  this  purpose,  while  the  girls 
apply  art  to  their  home  economics. 

An  annual  exhibit  of  the  work  will  interest  the  parents 
in  art.  They  must  be  made  to  realize  that  art  has  more 
than  a  commercial  side.  They  cannot  judge  the  value  of 
art  by  what  is  seen  at  the  finger  tips.  Day  by  day  each 
lesson  implants  its  spirit,  until,  in  time,  we  have  art  as  a 
part  of  the  character  of  the  child,  redeeming  his  life  from 
the  commonplace  and  the  sordid.  The  child  unconscious- 
ly becomes  refined  in  spirit  and  is  sensitive  to  beauty  and 
harmony  while  yet  poor  in  expression  with  any  medium. 

GENERAL  OUTLINE 

First  Division:  Study  of  color  by  cards,  wheels,  etc. 
Third  dimension  work — form  emphasized.  Hence  clay  is  the 
best  medium  for  expression.  Modeling  should  be  done  from 
memory  as  well  as  from  objects.  Hard  charcoal  work 
follows  modeling,  and  this  is  followed  by  colored  crayons. 


152  RURAL  EDUCATION 

Second  Division:  Review  work  of  the  First  Division, 
adding  wood  models  as  basis  for  forms,  and  Eagle  Drafting 
Pencils.  Also  brush  and  pan  of  sepia.  Water  colors  are 
often  used  too  soon. 

Third  Division:  Add  to  the  previous  supplies  a  three 
colored  box.  A  systematic  study  of  colored  pictures 
and  atmospheric  colors  should  be  conducted.  Finally, 
the  compass  and  mechanical  drawing,  and  the  application 
of  art  to  industry. 


CHAPTER  XII 

HISTORY  AND  CIVICS 
HISTORY 

In  some  schools  history  is  regarded  as  a  girl's  subject, 
because  the  boys  find  it  distasteful.  This  idea  is  unfortu- 
nate, indeed,  as  history  is  a  very  important  part  of  the 
elementary  course.  The  kind  of  history  that  makes  a 
knowledge  of  dates  and  battles  the  important  thing,  or 
that  begins  with  Columbus  each  year  and  ends  wherever 
the  class  happens  to  be  reciting  at  the  end  of  the  year,  is 
certainly  not  worth  while.  But  history  that  helps  the  student 
to  understand  the  present  and  estimate  the  future,  by  the 
interpretation  of  the  past,  is  a  vitalizing  force. 

The  aim  of  history  teaching  is  not  to  cram  the  mind 
with  dates  and  facts.  Neither  is  it  to  teach  patriotism  in 
the  sense  in  which  that  word  is  often  used.  It  is  to  teach 
true  patriotism,  the  patriotism  that  puts  right  and  honor 
above  might  and  dishonor.  History  teaches  morals  in 
the  individual  and  the  nation.  It  is  socializing  in  that  it 
should  make  the  individual  less  selfish  and  more  cosmopoli- 
tan and  altruistic.  In  this  connection,  McMurry,  in  his 
"Special  Method  in  History,"  says  "It  is  often  said  that 
one  aim  of  history  is  to  teach  patriotism.  It  might  be 
better  said  that  history  should  aim  to  clarify  and  purify 
the  sentiment  of  patriotism.  The  crude  feeling  of  patriot- 
ism is  very  strong  and  demonstrative  in  this  country,  and 
it  is  a  reality,  not  a  boast  nor  a  dream.  It  greatly  needs  to 
be  purified.  Children  should  be  made  more  intelligent 
about  our  country  and  more  sensitive  to  its  true  honor  and 

153 


154  RURAL  EDUCATION 

dignity.  This  result  is  attainable  by  the  schools,  because 
the  lives,  words  and  deeds  of  the  best  patriotic  Americans 
are  easily  within  the  reach  of  teachers  and  children.  Dis- 
interested American  patriots,  such  as  Franklin,  Washing- 
ton, Lincoln,  Emerson,  Bryant,  Lowell  and  many  others  of 
the  same  stamp,  have  given  unmistakable  evidence  in 
their  works  and  words  that  they  fully  appreciated  that 
higher  destiny  toward  which  America  seems  to  be  moving. 
True  patriotism,  by  common  consent,  does  not  consist  in 
magnifying  our  own  country  at  the  expense  of  England, 
the  North  at  the  expense  of  the  South,  or  America  right 
or  wrong  at  the  expense  of  the  world.  To  cultivate  fair- 
mindedness  and  honesty,  to  see  clearly  both  sides  of  an 
historical  controversy,  is,  in  this  respect,  the  true  standard 
of  history  study.  Americans  have  enough  to  be  proud  of 
without  belittling  those  who  chance  to  be  their  opponents, 
and  without  extravagant  boasting  as  to  their  own  deserts. 
Among  other  things  we  can  well  afford  to  understand  our 
own  mistakes  and  weaknesses,  and  to  accept  with  fair- 
mindedness  and  honesty  some  of  the  superior  excellences 
and  institutions  of  other  countries,  as  of  France,  or  Eng- 
land, or  Germany.  A  course  of  study  in  history  must 
necessarily  include  much  historical  material  from  other 
countries,  and  many  noble  characters  not  American.  We 
have  no  end  of  instructive  lessons  to  learn  from  Europe. 
True  liberality  and  the  broad  mental  balance  and  charity 
which  go  with  it  are  things  of  slow  growth,  but  in  the  study 
of  history  it  is  the  paramount  obligation  of  the  teacher  to 
cultivate  these  dispositions  both  in  himself  and  in  the 
children." 

Biography  is  the  agency  through  which  history,  in  the 
lower  and  intermediate  grades,  should  teach  types  of  men 
and  women  that  are  worthy  of  emulation,  and  who  have 


HISTORY  AND  CIVICS  155 

helped  to  make  their  countries  great.  What  child  will 
not  profit  by  the  stories  of  the  lives  of  Washington,  Lin- 
coln, Harriet  Beecher  Stowe,  Longfellow,  Whittier,  Daniel 
Boone  and  others  in  this  country,  as  well  as  a  similar  list 
of  persons  who  have  influenced  the  development  of  other 
nations?  Taking  King  Alfred  as  a  type  for  European 
history,  it  has  been  said  of  him:  "No  other  man  on  record 
has  ever  so  thoroughly  united  all  the  virtues  both  of  ruler 
and  of  the  private  man.  A  saint  without  superstition,  a 
scholar  without  boast,  a  warrior  whose  wars  were  fought  in 
defense  of  his  own  country,  a  conqueror  whose  laurels  were 
never  stained  by  cruelty,  a  prince  never  cast  down  by  ad- 
versity, never  lifted  up  to  insolence  in  the  hour  of  triumph 
— there  is  no  other  name  in  history  to  compare  with  his." 

The  mental  discipline  derived  from  a  study  of  history 
can  hardly  be  overestimated.  While  probably  not  as 
exact  as  mathematical  calculations,  the  student  reaches 
more  or  less  definite  conclusions  after  studying  an  event  in 
history  from  its  various  aspects.  For  instance,  if  the 
colonies  were  justified  in  separating  from  the  mother  coun- 
try, why  was  the  South  not  justified  in  seceding  from  the 
Union?  After  the  student  has  studied  both  of  these  critical 
periods  in  our  history,  he  is  in  a  position  to  weigh  the  facts 
carefully  and  come  to  his  own  conclusions. 

Chronology  is  unimportant  and  should  be  taught  only 
in  advanced  classes.  It  will  kill  the  spirit  of  the  subject 
in  the  lower  division  work.  Dates  have  usually  been  over- 
done. A  dozen  or  fifteen  for  the  entire  elementary  course 
in  history  are  sufficient.  Neither  is  it  necessary  to  re- 
quire the  children  to  memorize  the  administrations  of  the 
presidents  in  order,  giving  five  or  any  other  stated  number 
of  events  that  occurred  during  the  office  of  each.  Some 
administrations  are  noted  for  more  than  that  number  of 


156  RURAL  EDUCATION 

important  events,  while  others  have  none  that  ought  to  be 
studied  in  the  elementary  school. 

Supplementary  reading  in  history  is  necessary  to  get  a 
broad  view  of  the  subject.  As  well  as  a  few  good  books  for 
special  reference,  the  library  should  afford  a  list  of  historical 
novels  of  the  best  grade.  Students  should  be  required  to 
read  a  few  of  these  as  part  of  the  course  in  history,  and 
encouraged  to  read  many  more  for  general  culture.  If  the 
teacher  herself  has  formed  the  reading  habit,  she  will  have 
no  difficulty  in  interesting  the  pupils.  A  list  of  one  hundred 
references  in  history,  selected  from  a  much  larger  number 
in  a  library,  is  given  at  the  end  of  the  chapter.  The  teacher 
can  select  from  the  list  when  ordering  library  books  for 
the  school. 

European  history  stories  should  precede  the  formal 
study  of  American  history.  This  plan  is  now  generally 
adopted.  The  Committee  of  Eight  recognizes  a  few  lines 
of  development  in  the  world's  history  that  should  be  studied 
in  order  to  better  understand  our  own  history.  Authori- 
ties differ  as  to  the  location  of  the  "cradle  of  civilization," 
but  it  was  probably  somewhere  in  the  valleys  of  south- 
eastern Asia.  From  there  this  early  type  of  civilization 
spread  to  western  Asia  among  the  Phoenicians  and  Greeks. 
They  established  colonies  in  southern  Italy  and  Greece. 
The  Roman  conquest  followed.  Then  came  the  invasion 
of  central  Europe  by  the  barbarians  from  the  East,  and  the 
beginning  of  the  modern  nations  of  that  continent.  These 
conquests  expanded  the  new  civilization  to  the  shores  of 
the  Atlantic.  The  next  great  westward  movement  was  to 
cross  the  ocean  and  colonize  the  New  World.  From  this 
trend  of  civilization  it  can  be  seen  that  the  American  sage's 
advice  to  young  men  to  "Go  West"  was  only  the  echo  of 
the  cry  of  the  ages. 


HISTORY  AND  CIVICS  157 

Each  of  the  ancient  and  medieval  nations  contributed 
something  to  civilization.  That  contribution  has,  to  a 
greater  or  less  extent,  affected  the  present  civilization  of 
America.  A  knowledge  of  what  each  nation  gave  to  the 
world  is,  therefore,  necessary  to  understand  our  own  history. 
In  a  word,  we  are  wont  to  think  of  religion  in  connection 
with  the  Hebrews;  of  commerce,  with  the  Phoenicians;  of 
art,  with  the  Greeks;  of  law,  with  the  Romans;  and  of  vigor 
with  the  barbarians.  All  of  these  peoples,  and  more,  have 
had  a  tremendous  influence  on  modern  civilization.  The 
foreigner  landing  on  our  shores  brings  with  him  the  tradi- 
tions and  customs  of  the  mother  country.  Many  of  these 
are  worth  preserving  in  the  adopted  country. 

Geography  and  history  are  so  closely  related  that  they 
cannot  be  taught  separately.  The  early  explorers  first 
taught  the  true  shape  of  the  earth.  They  discovered  new 
lands  and  seas  and  were  truly  geographers.  A  knowledge 
of  geography  is  absolutely  essential  to  a  complete  un- 
derstanding of  history.  Maps,  globes  and  special  charts 
should  frequently  be  used  in  the  history  class.  Slated 
cloth  charts  with  outline  maps  are  inexpensive  and  good 
for  this  work. 

Heroes  and  hero  worship  in  history  teaching  have  been 
confined  too  largely  to  military  achievements.  The  events 
connected  with  Marathon,  Thermopylae,  Quebec,  Trafal- 
gar, Waterloo  and  Manila  Bay  are  striking  examples.  It  is 
not  the  courage  of  a  Napoleon  nor  the  patriotism  of  a  Bis- 
marck that  we  should  idolize,  but  rather  that  of  the  brave 
men  who  stepped  aside  to  rescue  the  women  and  children 
of  the  Titanic,  and  that  of  the  physician  who  willingly 
sacrificed  himself  that  yellow  fever  might  be  conquered. 
Such  patriotism  is  not  merely  national  but  universal;  not 
selfish,  but  philanthropic. 


158  RURAL  EDUCATION 

The  peace  movement  of  recent  years  has  been  a  worthy 
one.  But  neither  peace  medals  nor  Hague  conferences 
could  prevent  the  most  stupendous  catastrophe  in  history 
— the  wholesale  murdering  of  civilized  people  and  the  bank- 
rupting of  nations.  The  teacher,  if  she  uses  her  oppor- 
tunity in  the  schoolroom,  is  a  mightier  force  for  peace  than 
all  the  statesmen  the  world  has  ever  seen. 

The  Three  Division  plan  is  carried  out  in  history  as  in 
other  subjects  for  the  rural  school.  The  First  Division 
work  is  correlated  with  language,  geography  and  reading, 
and  there  is  no  history  recitation  period.  The  stories  are 
told  or  read  by  the  teacher  and  reproduced  by  the  children. 
In  the  Second  Division,  the  story  method  is  continued,  but 
easy  historical  readers  should  be  introduced.  The  formal 
study  of  history  from  the  textbook  is  left  for  the  work  of 
the  Third  Division,  and  at  least  one  half  of  the  time  of  the 
Second  Division  should  be  given  to  a  study  of  general  his- 
tory stories.  The  program  allows  for  one  year  of  formal 
textbook  work  in  United  States  History  to  be  given  in 
either  the  sixth  or  seventh  year,  alternating  with  geography. 
It  may  be  argued  that  one  year  of  history  is  not  sufficient, 
but  it  is  doubtful  if  more  can  be  given  in  a  rural  school  and 
leave  sufficient  time  for  the  other  subjects.  If  a  child  has 
been  given  history  stories  for  three  years,  as  suggested  for 
the  First  Division  work,  and  has  then  continued  to  study 
both  American  and  European  history  stories  from  his- 
torical readers  for  two  years  more,  he  should  have  a  back- 
ground that  will  make  the  one  year  of  formal  history  study 
more  valuable  than  several  years  according  to  the  old  plan. 
Teaching  history  from  the  same  book  for  two  or  three  years 
and  requiring  the  student  to  give  topics  from  memory  is 
worse  than  a  waste  of  time.  This  is  drudgery  that  creates 
distaste  and  defeats  its  very  purpose. 


HISTORY  AND  CIVICS  159 

FIRST  DIVISION 

The  work  suggested  under  this  division  can  be  given 
during  the  morning  exercises,  at  the  general  period  or 
correlated  with  the  language  and  reading  lessons.  The 
teacher  should  have  several  good  reference  books  of  history 
stories  in  the  library.  The  -stories  should  be  carefully 
selected  and  told  by  the  teacher  to  the  class.  Fables, 
fairy  tales,  and  myths  have  their  place  in  awakening  the 
imagination.  Stories  of  child  life,  and  present  types  of 
primitive  life,  should  be  told,  to  give  a  better  understand- 
ing of  developed  civilization.  The  hunter,  trapper,  shepherd 
and  Indian,  with  the  associations  that  belong  to  each,  will 
afford  excellent  illustrations.  The  child  should  read  and 
learn  the  suitable  practical  literature.  He  should  know 
the  story  of  our  flag  and  be  able  to  give  the  salute.  Anni- 
versaries such  as  Thanksgiving,  Christmas,  Washington's 
and  Lincoln's  birthdays,  the  Fourth  of  July  and  others 
should  be  observed.  It  is  not  necessary  to  present  the 
stories  for  this  division  in  chronological  order.  It  is  often 
best  not  to  do  so.  Neither  should  they  be  confined  to 
American  history  stories.  Somewhere  in  his  development 
the  child  is  entitled  to  know  some  of  the  great  characters 
in  literature  and  history,  and,  as  many  children  do  not 
obtain  this  information  at  home,  the  school  should  supply 
it.  The  following  stories  are  suggested:  Arachne,  Pan- 
dora, Ulysses,  Bag  of  Winds,  Jason  and  the  Golden  Fleece, 
Ceres,  Prometheus,  Montezuma,  Alladin,  Theseus,  Leoni- 
das,  Siegfried,  Hercules,  Abraham,  Joseph,  David,  Jesus, 
Romulus,  Julius  Caesar,  Alfred  the  Great,  Bruce,  Wallace, 
King  Arthur,  Washington,  James  Watt,  Robert  Fulton, 
Lincoln  and  others.  The  teacher  should  consult  "How  to 
Teach  Stories  to  the  Child"  by  Sarah  Cone  Bryant,  "Nor- 
thern Land  Heroes"  by  Holbrook  and  "Stories  of  Great 


160  RURAL  EDUCATION 

Americans"  by  Eggleston.  It  is  not  expected  that  all  of 
these  stories  will  be  given  during  any  one  year,  but  there 
will  be  time  to  have  most  of  them  during  the  three  years  of 
the  First  Division  work. 

SECOND  DIVISION 

The  classes  of  this  division  recite  together,  and  it  is  well 
to  begin  each  year  of  the  two  years'  work  with  some  of  the 
stories  listed  under  the  First  Division,  as  the  pupils  will 
hardly  be  familiar  with  all  of  them.  A  set  of  historical 
readers  should  be  introduced  during  the  early  part  of  the 
course.  During  the  second  year  the  work  covered  should 
be  stories  of  the  American  history  as  given  in  any  of  the 
up-to-date  historical  readers,  for  example,  "The  Pioneer 
History  Series"  by  McMurry  or  "The  Story  of  our  Country" 
by  Elson  and  MacMullan.  The  first  set  consists  of  three 
books:  the  "Pioneers  of  the  Mississippi  Valley,"  "Pioneers 
of  Land  and  Sea"  and  "Pioneers  of  the  Rocky  Mountains." 
The  student  should  begin  with  the  book  for  the  section  of 
the  country  in  which  he  lives.  The  second  set  is  a  two  book 
series  the  first  of  which  gives  the  story  of  our  national  his- 
tory to  the  close  of  the  Revolutionary  War  and  the  second 
down  to  the  present  time.  The  other  year's  work  of  the 
Second  Division  may  continue  in  the  study  of  stories  from 
-  our  own  history,  but  the  last  half  year  should  be  devoted 
to  general  history  stories.  "An  Introductory  American 
History"  by  Bourne  and  Benton  and  "The  History  of  the 
Old  World"  by  Elson  and  MacMullan  are  good  for  this 
work,  although  they  are  difficult  for  fifth-year  students. 
A  study  of  that  part  of  European  history  that  has  a  direct 
bearing  upon  American  history  is  essential,  if  the  child  is 
to  understand  cause  and  effect  in  this  subject.  They  are 
surely  more  important  than  dates  and  isolated  facts.  For 


HISTORY  AND  CIVICS  161 

example,  if  the  student  is  to  get  a  correct  viewpoint  of  the 
French  and  Indian  wars,  he  must  understand  something  of 
the  economic  and  political  conditions  in  France  for  a  century 
or  more  before  the  French  Revolution,  that  he  may  under- 
stand why  that  nation  was  willing  to  struggle  to  the  finish 
with  England  for  possessions  in  the  New  World. 

The  general  history  work  may  be  given  throughout  the 
course  during  the  two  years  of  this  division,  if  that  plan 
seems  better  than  to  devote  a  half  year  to  European  his- 
tory separately.  The  above  suggestions  regarding  work 
that  should  precede  the  study  of  the  French  and  Indian 
wars  will  illustrate  how  the  work  may  be  conducted.  Simi- 
larly, before  the  study  of  the  Revolutionary  War,  the  revolu- 
tions in  England,  France  and  other  countries  should  be 
discussed.  .  It  will  then  be  seen  that  the  American  struggle 
was  merely  a  part  of  a  great  world-wide  movement  for  inde- 
pendence from  arbitrary  rulers. 

The  work  of  the  Second  Division,  then,  is  to  give  a 
general  foundation  for  the  year  of  formal  history  in  the 
Third  Division. 

THIRD  DIVISION 

One  year  of  formal  history  from  any  good  textbook 
should  be  given.  It  is  already  understood  that  history,  is 
to  alternate  with  geography.  That  is,  history  will  be  offered 
one  year  to  the  pupils  of  the  sixth  and  seventh  grade*;  and 
geography  the  next  year,  the  classes  being  combined  each 
year.  If  it  seems  best  to  have  a  half  year  of  geography  and 
a  half  year  of  history  each  year,  that  plan  may  be  followed 
with  the  course  suggested  here.  The  first  year  of  the 
Second  Division  work  should  have  laid  a  good  foundation 
for  the  early  part  of  American  history.  It  would,  therefore, 
seem  best  to  begin  the  Third  Division  work  with  the  Ameri- 


162  RURAL  EDUCATION 

can  Revolution  and  spend  most  of  the  year  on  history  since 
that  time,  correlating  whatever  European  history  is  neces- 
sary for  an  interpretation  of  our  own.  The  last  few  weeks 
of  the  year  may  be  spent  on  a  review  of  the  period  of  dis- 
covery and  exploration.  Maps,  globes  and  historical  charts 
should  be  used  freely  in  presenting  the  daily  lessons.  The 
students  should  be  encouraged  to  draw  suitable  books  from 
the  library  to  supplement  the  class  work.  See  the  lists  of 
history  references.  Some  teachers  are  able  to  inculcate  the 
reading  habit;  others  are  not.  Students  will  often  get  more 
history  from  the  reference  books,  specially  in  the  advanced 
classes,  than  they  will  get  from  the  text.  History  may  be 
made  just  as  interesting  to  boys  as  to  girls. 

U.  S.  HISTORY  REFERENCE 
I.    Discovery  and  Exploration 

The  Deerslayer — Cooper  Indian  History  for  Young  People 
The  Last  of  the  Mohicans — '•  — Drake 

Cooper  How  Our  Grandfathers  Lived — 

The  Pathfinder— Cooper  Hart 

The  Pioneer — Cooper  Wigwam  Stories — Judd 

The  Pilot — Cooper  Flamingo  Feather — Munroe 

The  Prairie — Cooper  Conquest  of  Peru — Pratt 

The  Spy — Cooper  Conquest  of  Mexico — Prescott 

II.     Colonization  and  Settlement 

Th?,; Colonies— Thwaites  A  Tale  of  Acadia— D.  E.  Miller 

Old  Virginia  and  Her  Neighbors—  Home   Life   in   Colonial   Days— 

Fiske  Earle 

The  Making  of  New  England—  In  Old  Virginia— Page 

Drake  Stories    of    Colonial    Children— 

Standish  of  Standish — Austin  Pratt 
Heroes  of  Middle  West  (French)— 

Catherwood 

III.     Revolutionary  Age 

For  King  or  Country— Barnes  Richard  Carvel— Churchill 

A  Girl  of  76— Blanchard  Daughter    of    the    Revolution— 

The  French  Revolution— Carlyle  Coffin 

Story  of  Joan  of  Arc,  for  boys  and  Brave  Little  Holland  and  What 

girls— Carpenter  She  Taught  Us— Griffis 


HISTORY  AND  CIVICS  163 


III.     Revolutionary  Age — Continued 

Washington    and   his   Country—  The  Boston  Tea  Party — Watson 

Irving  &  Fiske  Midshipman  Paulding — Seawell 

Benjamin  Franklin — Morse             .  Four  Great  Americans — Baldwin. 

Green  Mountain  Boys — Thompson  Four  American  Naval  Heroes — 

The   Boys   of  Old   Monmouth —  Beebe 

Tomlinson  Four  American  Patriots — Burton. 

IV.     Critical  Period 

Formation  of  the  Union — Hart  Eighty  Years  of  Union — Schouler 

Building  the  Nation — Coffin  Louisiana   Purchase — Winship   & 

Captain  Sam  (1814)— Eggleston  Wallace 
Tecumseh — Eggleston 

V.     Mexican  and  Civil  War 

The  Life  of  Col.  David  Crockett  The  Crisis— Churchill 

— Ellis  Little  Shepherd  of  Kingdom  Come 

Giant  of  Three  Wars— Barnes  — Fox 

The  Rifle  Rangers— Reid  Battle  Ground— Glascow 

The  Civil  War  and  the  Constitu-  With  Lee  in  Virginia— Henty 

tion — Burgess  A  Broken  Sword — King 

A  Bird's  Eye  View  of  our  Civil  Two  Little  Confederates— Page 

War — Dodge  Three  Scouts — Trowbridge 

A  Perfect  Tribute^— Andrews  The  Drummer  Boy — Trowbridge 

Uncle  Tom's  Cabin — Stowe  Cudjo's  Cave — Trowbridge 

VI.     Reconstruction 

Reconstruction  and  Constitution  Working  with  the  Hands — Wash- 

— Burgess  ington 

The  Clansman  (Klu  Klux  Klan)  Up  from  Slavery — WTashington 

— Dixon  Red  Rock — Page 
The  Leopard's  Spots — Dixon 

VII.     Rocky  Mountains  and  the  West 

Hunting  the  Grizzly — Roosevelt  The  Gentleman  from   Indiana — 

Hunting  Trips  of  a  Ranchman —  Tarkington 

Roosevelt  Roughing  It — Mark  Twain 

The  Winning  of  the  West— Roose-  Black  Rock — Connor 

velt  The  Sky  Pilot — Connor 

Ramona — Jackson  Hoosier   School    Master— Eggles- 

The  Childhood  of  Ji  Ship   (The  ton 

Ojibway)— Jenks  Last  of  the  Flatboats— Eggleston 

Chumley's    Post.     (A    story    of  Luck  of  Roaring  Camp — Harte 

Pawnee  Trail) — Stoddard  Story  of  a  Cowboy— Hough 


164  RURAL  EDUCATION 

VIII.     Spanish  American  War  and  Acquisitions 

The  Story  of  Our  War  with  Spain      Little   Journeys   to    Hawaii    and 
— Brooks  Philippines — George 

The  Rescue  of  Cuba— Draper  Ba-Long-Long     (Igorot     Boy)— 

Little    Journeys    to    Cuba    and          Jenks 

Porto  Rico— George  Our    Little    Philippine    Cousin- 

Wade 

IX.  Miscellaneous 

Historic  Girls — Brooks  Twenty  Famous  Naval  Battles- 
Strange  Stories  from  History  for  Rawson 

Young  People — Eggleston  The  Making  of  an  American — Riis 

Hero  Tales  from  American  His-  Master  of  Strong  Hearts — Brooks 

tory — Lodge  &  Roosevelt 

X.  General  History 

Three  Greek  Children— Church  Thaddeus  of  Warsaw— Porter 

In  the  Brave  Days  of  Old  (James  Marie  Antoinette — Abbott 

I)— Hall  By  Order  of  the  King— Hugo 

Lorna  Doone — Blackmore  Every  Inch  a  King — Sawyer 

TRAINING  FOR  CITIZENSHIP 

An  elementary  course  in  civics  should  be  given  in  every 
rural  school,  as  a  majority  of  the  country  boys  and  girls 
will  never  get  this  training  anywhere  if  not  in  their  home 
school.  The  course  must  be  simple,  but  broad  enough  to 
familiarize  the  student  with  such  local  forms  of  government 
as  he  will  need  to  know  as  a  future  citizen.  Probably  the 
best  place  to  teach  this  subject  is  in  connection  with  the 
history.  One  period  a  week  can  be  given  to  civics  in  each 
of  the  history  classes,  or,  if  it  seems  better,  parts  of  the  his- 
tory periods  can  be  used  and  the  civics  taught  incidentally. 
Supplementary  readers  pertaining  to  citizenship  can  be  read 
in  the  advanced  division.  Talks  by  the  teacher  at  the  morn- 
ing exercises  will  be  helpful. 

Local  government  should  naturally  be  emphasized.  The 
school  district  will  represent  a  type  of  pure  democracy  where 
all  the  people  have  an  opportunity  to  take  part  in  the  govern- 
ment. Students  ought  to  be  familiar  with  the  formation  of 


HISTORY  AND  CIVICS  165 

a  school  district,  the  annual  meeting,  the  officers  and  their 
duties,  the  permanent  school  fund,  and  from  what  sources 
the  money  used  to  maintain  the  school  is  raised.  In  Chapter 
I  a  more  complete  discussion  was  given.  The  town  govern- 
ment should  also  be  studied  in  states  where  this  is  an 
important  unit.  A  distinction  can  be  made  between  the  demo- 
cratic form  of  government,  as  the  school  district  and  town- 
ship, and  the  representative  form,  as  the  county,  state, 
and  nation.  The  duties  of  the  supervisors  of  the  town, 
(not  village)  the  annual  town  meeting,  roads  and  bridges, 
and  other  topics  of  interest  may  be  studied.  The  officers 
of  the  county  and  their  duties,  the  commissioners,  or  county 
board,  and  the  county  roads  and  bridges  are  important 
for  this  unit  of  government. 

The  state  and  national  government  may  be  studied  as 
time  will  permit,  but  they  should  not  receive  the  attention 
at  the  expense  of  the  local  units  of  government.  It  is  of 
very  much  more  importance  to  the  average  individual  to 
know  who  is  to  serve  on  the  school  board  of  the  district  and 
his  attitude  toward  public  education  than  to  know  who  will 
be  the  next  President  of  the  nation.  The  former  officer  may 
have  a  much  more  direct  bearing  upon  the  welfare  of  the 
community  than  the  latter.  Notwithstanding  this  fact  nine 
persons  out  of  every  ten  will  stay  away  from  the  annual 
school  meeting. 

A  practical  civics  society  is  sometimes  organized  to  create 
interest  in  parliamentary  rules  and  governmental  affairs. 
The  entire  room  may  form  this  organization  and  elect  their 
officers.  These  are  elected  and  the  same  order  of  business 
followed  as  in  any  public  meeting.  We  have  organized 
these  societies  in  many  schools  with  varying  degrees  of  suc- 
cess. In  some  the  greatest  interest  has  prevailed  from  the 
start,  while  in  others  it  gradually  lagged  until  everybody 


166  RURAL  EDUCATION 

became  disgusted  with  the  organization.  I  am  unkind 
enough  to  say  that  the  only  difference  was  in  the  teachers. 
'On  more  than  one  public  occasion  little  tots  in  the  second 
year  at  school  presided  as  president  and  secretary  with  the 
ease  and  dignity  of  a  senator.  A  gavel  tied  with  ribbons, 
the  colors  of  the  society,  may  be  used,  if  desired.  At  times 
it  is  well  to  have  this  organization  take  charge  of  the  open- 
ing exercises,  selecting  their  own  songs,  quotations,  etc.  A 
particularly  interesting  feature  is  the  use  of  Mr.  and  Miss 
when  a  person  addresses  the  chair,  or  when  that  officer 
recognizes  one  on  the  floor.  The  salute  to  the  flag  may  be 
given  as  part  of  the  exercises,  letting  a  different  student 
hold  the  flag  each  time 

Time  for  teaching  civics  will  be  obtained  only  by  taking 
it.  Many  of  the  suggestions  given  above  can  be  conducted 
incidentally  or  correlated  with  other  subjects.  Civics  is 
more  important  than  much  of  the  book  history  and  some 
other  subjects  taught  in  our  schools.  Part  of  this  time,  if 
there  is  no  other,  should  be  devoted  to  preparation  for  citizen- 
ship. 


CHAPTER  XIII 
GEOGRAPHY 

Geography  may  be  defined  as  the  study  of  the  earth  as 
related  to  man.  In  this  subject  especially  the  teacher  should 
apply  this  principle  in  pedagogy,  "Begin  with  the  known 
and  work  to  the  related  unknown."  The  older  notion  of 
beginning  with  the  planets  and  then  with  the  physical  fea- 
tures of  the  grand  divisions  of  the  earth  has  gradually  been 
abandoned  until  most  educators  are  agreed  that  the  indus- 
trial and  commercial  side  of  geography  should  be  the  central 
idea  of  the  entire  course.  In  this  regard  the  recommenda- 
tion of  the  Committee  of  Fifteen  is  of  interest:  "The  child 
commences  with  what  is  nearest  to  his  interests,  and  pro- 
ceeds gradually  toward  what  is  to  be  studied  for  its  own 
sake.  It  is,  therefore,  a  mistake  to  suppose  that  the  first 
phase  of  geography  presented  to  the  child  should  be  the 
process  of  continent  formation.  He  must  begin  with  the 
Ratural  differences  of  climate  and  lands  and  waters  and 
obstacles  that  separate  peoples,  and  study  the  methods  by 
which  man  strives  to  equalize  or  overcome  these  differences 
by  industry  and  commerce,  to  unite  all  places  and  all  peoples, 
and  make  it  possible  for  all  to  share  in  the  productions  of 
all.  The  industrial  and  commercial  idea  is,  therefore,  the 
first  central  idea  in  geography  in  the  elementary  schools. 
It  leads  directly  to  the  natural  elements  of  different  climate, 
soil,  and  productions,  and  also  to  those  in  race,  religion, 
political  status,  and  occupations  of  the  inhabitants,  with  a 
view  to  explain  the  grounds  and  reasons  for  this  counter- 
process  of  civilization  which  struggles  to  overcome  the  dif- 
ferences." 

Much  of  the  geography  is  largely  a  process  of  memory 

167 


168  RURAL  EDUCATION 

work  and  should  be  learned  during  the  drill  age,  which 
corresponds  approximately  to  the  Second  and  Third  Divi- 
sions. For  example,  learning  the  names  of  countries,  rivers, 
and  cities  is  not  a  process  of  reasoning.  There  is  just  one 
way  to  learn  this  phase  of  geography  and  that  is  by  constant 
drill.  Maps  and  globes  will  help,  and  the  teacher  should 
make  more  use  of  them  than  she  often  does.  Every  stu- 
dent should  be  required  to  make  from  memory  a  fairly 
good  outline  map  of  each  of  the  continents.  These  remain 
the  same  regardless  of  wars  and  international  treaties, 
while  the  boundaries  of  countries  do  not.1  A  student  who 
can  draw  such  an  outline  off-hand  from  memory 
will  not  locate  the  British  Isles  south  of  Spain,  as  I  recently 
saw  one  pupil  who  had  finished  geography  do.  It  is  well 
to  be  able  to  locate  the  great  cities  of  the  world,  also  the 
chief  industrial  activities,  as  the  coal  and  iron  producing 
regions,  forests,  grains,  etc.,  not  locally  for  one  country, 
but  for  the  entire  world. 

A  great  deal  of  the  geography  work  should  be  taught 
out  of  doors.  While  it  may  be  more  difficult  for  the  rural 
teacher  to  arrange  her  work  so  that  she  can  take  the  geog- 
raphy class  on  excursions,  it  is  the  country  rather  than  the 
town  that  renders  them  worth  while.  An  occasional  trip 
can  be  arranged  in  the  afternoon  after  the  first  division 
has  been  dismissed.  Both  of  the  other  divisions  can  be 
taken  at  the  same  time.  Teachers  often  talk  about  the 
lessons  in  the  book,  when  they  could  take  the  class  for  an 
outing  and  study  the  real  things.  We  spend  hours  during 
the  year  in  various  classes  talking  about  how  grains  are 
planted,  cultivated,  harvested,  and  threshed,  when  these 
things  are  being  done  all  about  us.  I  well  remember  having 
to  stand  in  the  corner  with  my  back  to  the  school  for  an 
hour,  because  I  looked  out  of  the  window  to  see  a  thresh- 


GEOGRAPHY  169 

ing  machine  go  by.  What  live  boy  is  not  interested  in 
a  puffing  engine  drawing  a  separator  along  the  road?  How 
much  better  it  would  have  been  for  the  teacher  to  have 
taken  the  entire  school  outside  for  five  minutes  to  watch 
the  threshing  outfit  go  by!  The  occasion  could  have  been 
made  the  basis  for  several  interesting  lessons  later  on. 
Weathering,  erosion,  land  formations,  and  a  great  many 
other  similar  topics  that  are  often  difficult  for  the  student 
to  grasp,  can  so  easily  be  explained  from  nature.  If  there 
is  a  stream  within  a  mile  of  the  school  house,  the  teacher 
should  use  it  as  her  laboratory  in  geography. 

As  it  is  not  a  common  thing  for  rural  students  to  do 
field  work,  some  teachers  may  be  timid  to  inaugurate  it, 
fearing  that  the  community  might  think  she  was  wasting 
time.  The  teacher  who  is  big  enough  to  make  geography 
a  real,  live  subject,  will  have  no  trouble.  A  grocery  store, 
blacksmith  shop,  creamery,  brick  or  tile  yard,  dairy  farm, 
poultry  yard,  kitchen  garden,  orchard  and  grain  field  are 
other  places  of  interest,  where  geography  can  best  be  taught 
at  first  hand. 

McMurry,  in  his  "Special  Method  in  Geography," 
says  there  are  seven  principal  topics  that  may  be  studied 
experimentally  in  home  geography.  They  are: 

1.  Food  products  and  occupations  connected  with  them. 

2.  Building  materials  and  related  trades. 

3.  Clothing  materials  used,  manufacture,  etc. 

4.  Local  commerce,  roads,  bridges,  railroads. 

5.  Local  surface  features.     Streams,  hills,  woods,  etc. 

6.  Town  and  county  government.     Courthouse,  city  hall,  coun- 

cil, etc. 

7.  Climate  and  seasons.     Sun,  wind,  storms,  heat. 

The  geography  lesson  in  the  rural  school  so  often  drags 
when  it  ought  to  be  one  of  the  most  interesting  subjects. 
Students  should  be  encouraged  to  make  collections  of 


170  RURAL  EDUCATION 

soils,  rocks,  plants,  etc.,  found  in  the  community.  The 
older  boys  will  be  delighted,  if  asked  to  make  a  collection 
of  the  different  kinds  of  wood  they  can  find.  A  cross- 
section  of  a  small  tree,  two  or  three  inches  in  diameter, 
can  be  made  by  sawing  off  a  piece  about  half  an  inch  thick 
and  sandpapering  one  end,  which  will  show  the  bark, 
sap-wood,  rings  of  growth  and  heart  of  the  tree.  A  lon- 
gitudinal section  can  be  prepared  by  sawing  off  a  block 
three  or  four  inches  long  from  the  same  tree  and  splitting 
it  in  two.  These  specimens  can  be  mounted  on  a  panel 
of  some  kind  and  hung  up  on  the  wall,  if  there  is  room. 
A  collection  of  this  kind  properly  labeled  is  well  worth 
the  time  it  takes  to  prepare  it.  The  school  should  be 
equipped  with  at  least  one  slated  globe  and  two  or  three 
blackboard  charts  slated  on  both  sides,  for  illustrative 
exercises  in  geography.  Slated  cloth,  charts  and  globes 
may  be  obtained  for  twenty-five  cents  each.  The  charts 
cost  about  a  dollar  and  a  half  each  and  can  be  used  for  his- 
tory work  as  well  as  geography. 

It  is  generally  conceded  now  that  the  course  in  this 
subject  should  begin  with  home  geography.  Let  this 
kind  of  teaching  be  literally  true.  The  school  district, 
township,  county,  state  and  nation  will  follow  in  order; 
then  North  America,  Europe,  Africa,  Asia,  Australia  and 
South  America.  The  first  part  of  the  course  presents  the 
home  geography  idea,  while  the  second  traces  the  devel- 
opment of  the  other  continents  from  Europe. as  the  center. 

FIRST  DIVISION  WORK 

While  there  is  no  recitation  in  geography  as  such  for 
this  division,  some  of  the  work  in  the  general  lessons  and 
in  language  should  be  geographical  in  its  nature.  Excur- 
sions with  the  rest  of  the  school  should  be  made  occasion- 


GEOGRAPHY  171 

ally  in  the  spring  and  fall.  Those  things  near  at  hand 
should  be  taught  by  the  objective  method.  In  the  language 
work,  "Seven  Little  Sisters"  can  be  made  the  basis  for 
much  of  the  work  in  geography  in  this  division.  This 
can  be  followed  by  "  Each  and  All"  and  the  story  of  "Robinson 
Crusoe."  One  copy  of  each  of  these  books  will  be  suffi- 
cient, as  the  teacher  will  tell  the  stories  and  have  them  re- 
produced by  the  class. 

A  sand  table  as  large  as  the  room  will  accommodate 
should  be  prepared  and  kept  in  constant  readiness.  Lakes, 
rivers,  mountains,  plains,  and  other  physical  formations 
can  be  illustrated.  The  sand  table  can  also  be  used  to 
illustrate  stories  in  literature. 

McMurry's  "Special  Method  in  Geography"  is  a  splen- 
did reference  book  for  the  teacher.  See  also  agricultural 

outlines. 

SECOND  DIVISION 

The  program  plans  for  a  twenty-minute  period  in  this 
division,  with  the  fourth  and  fifth  years'  students  reciting 
together.  One  year  of  this  work  should  be  devoted  to  home 
geography,  the  county  and  state,  keeping  as  the  central 
idea  industrial  and  commercial  geography.  The  students 
should  learn  to  draw  memory  maps  of  the  county  and  the 
state.  Relief  maps  and  industrial  maps  of  each  should 
also  be  made.  The  other  year  of  this  division  should  be 
devoted  to  a  study  of  the  United  States  by  groups,  and 
later  to  the  whole  North  American  continent  making 
relief  and  industrial  maps  from  memory.  Since  the  two 
classes  of  this  division  are  combined,  the  teacher  can  read- 
ily see  that  one  half  of  this  work  will  necessarily  come 
first  to  one  fourth  year  class  when  it  enters  the  division, 
and  the  other  half  to  the  next  fourth  year  class  when  it 
enters  a  year  later.  While  this  plan  may  not  be  ideal, 


172  RURAL  EDUCATION 

and  would  not  be  necessary  in  the  graded  schools,  it  is  very 
much  better  than  to  have  two  classes  and  to  divide  the 
time.  Let  the  students  read  "Seven  Little  Sisters,"  "Each 
and  All,"  and  other  similar  books  and  part  of  the  group 
reading  material  in  this  division.  Two  copies  of  each  book 
will  be  all  that  is  needed.  A  textbook  may  be  used  the 
last  half  of  each  year,  provided  something  that  is  suit- 
able can  be  obtained.  "Home  Geography"  by  Fairbanks, 
and  Long's  "Home  Geography"  are  good,  as  well  as  the 
books  of  the  Tarr  and  McMurry  series,  and  other  stand- 
ard geographies  that  can  now  be  obtained.  This  is  the  period 
for  whatever  memory  work  is  to  be  done  in  geography. 

THIRD  DIVISION 

In  this  division  the  course  provides  for  one  year  of 
geography  to  alternate  with  one  year  of  history.  It  is 
evident  that  one  year  the  geography  will  come  in  the  sixth 
year  and  the  next  it  will  be  in  the  seventh.  Some  teachers 
feel  that  this  is  not  enough  time  for  either  history  or  geo- 
graphy; but  there  is  no  doubt  that  more  can  be  accom- 
plished in  combining  the  classes  and  alternating  the  work 
than  by  offering  both  subjects  every  year  and  giving  half 
the  time  to  the  recitations.  But  little  could  be  done  in  a 
ten-minute  period  in  either  subject.  No  more  time  than 
this  could  be  given  unless  it  were  taken  from  some  other 
recitation.  As  it  is,  the  student  studies  each  of  these  sub- 
jects three  years,  and  a  good  foundation  should  be  laid 
before  this  in  first  division  work.  After  all,  with  a  pro- 
perly organized  course,  much  can  be  taught  in  that  time. 
If  it  seems  desirable,  one  half  of  the  year  can  be  devoted 
to  geography  and  the  other  half  to  history  during  each 
year  of  the  third  division  work.  Any  good  textbook  may 
be  used.  Start  with  Europe  and  follow  the  order  given 


GEOGRAPHY  173 

above,  emphasizing  particularly  the  industries  and  com- 
merce of  each  country. 

The  physical  features  of  each  continent  should  be  care- 
fully studied  in  this  division.  Weather  maps  may  be 
obtained  from  the  nearest  weather  bureau  and  the  students 
taught  how  to  read  them.  Why  the  cyclonic  storms  pass 
periodically  from  the  western  to  the  eastern  coast,  why  the 
wind  blows  from  the  east  before  a  local  storm  and,  then 
changes  around  to  the  north  or  northwest,  are  topics  that 
will  be  intensely  interesting,  if  properly  presented.  A 
study  of  the  ocean  currents  and  planetary  winds  will  reveal 
the  cause  of  the  different  climatic  conditions  of  places  in 
the  same  latitude,  as,  for  instance,  the  British  Isles  and 
Labrador.  Only  those  physical  features  that  are  of  direct 
practical  value  should  be  discussed  in  these  classes. 

The  productions  of  the  United  States  should  be  studied 
very  carefully  for  each  section  of  the  country.  Taken  up 
topically,  cereals,  live  stock,  cotton,  forests,  fruits,  fisheries, 
minerals  and  manufacturing  would  receive  attention.  Fol- 
lowing these,  logical  topics  are  transportation  and  exchange 
not  only  in  our  own  country  but  with  foreign  nations. 

After  the  continents  have  been  studied  in  order,  the 
great  transcontinental  railroads  and  their  importance  to 
the  nations;  the  ocean  routes  radiating  from  the  terminals 
of  these  railroads;  the  canals  and  how  they  influence  com- 
merce; comparison  of  the  products  of  different  countries; 
the  chief  exports  and  imports  of  each;  the  meaning  of  "bal- 
ance of  trade"  and  how  it  affects  different  countries;  free 
trade  and  production,  should  receive  an  explanation  based 
on  actual  and  practical  facts. 

Many  industrial  exhibits,  such  as  milling  products, 
soil  products,  thread  manufacturing,  etc.,  may  be  ob- 
tained from  manufacturing  establishments.  Most  of  these 


174 


RURAL  EDUCATION 


are  sent  free;  others  may  be  obtained  at  a  nominal  cost. 
Similar  exhibits  prepared  by  the  teacher  herself  will  be 
found  to  be  the  very  best  kind  of  training  for  teaching 
those  subjects.  The  author  once  spent  a  few  hours  a  day 
for  two  weeks  in  preparing  an  exhibit  of  some  thirty-six 
stages  of  the  products  of  a  flour  mill.  These  products 
ranged  from  the  grain  in  the  hopper  to  the  best  grade  of 
flour  and  all  its  by-products.  The  bottles  were  properly 
labeled  and  notes  taken  on  the  entire  process.  .Similar 
studies  in  a  large  lumber  mill  and  a  brickyard  were  equally 
beneficial.  Close  the  year's  work  with  a  brief  review  of 
the  geography  of  the  United  States.  A  list  of  reference 
books  is  suggested  for  the  library. 

LIST  OF  GEOGRAPHY  REFERENCES 


Lolame  The  Little  Cliff  Dweller- 
Bay  liss 

Stories  of  Country  Life — Bradish 
Stories   of   Woods   and   Fields — 

Brown 
Around  the  World  (First  Book)— 

Carroll  &  Jerome 
Around  the  World  (Second  Book) 

— Carroll  &  Jerome 
Around  the  World  (Third  Book) 

— Carroll  &  Jerome 
How  We  Are  Clothed— Chamber- 
lain 

How  We  Are  Fed — Chamberlain 
Little    Folks   of    Many    Lands — 

Chance 
Stories  of  Industries — Chase  and 

Clow 

Chinese  Folk  Stories — Davis 
The  Early  Cave  Men — Dopp 
The  Tree  Dwellers— Dopp 
The  Later  Cave  Men — Dopp 
Home   Life   in   Colonial   Days — 

Earle 
Home    Geography    for    Primary 

Grades — Fairbanks 
A   Little  Journey   to   Cuba   and 
Porto  Rico — George 


A  Little  Journey  to  Hawaii  and 

the  Philippines — George 
Forestry  in  Minnesota — Green 
The   Childhood    of    Hi-Ship    the 

O  jib  way — Jenks 
Wigwam  Stories — Judd 
Northern  Europe — Mason 
Our  Country  East — Mason 
Our  Country  West — Mason 
Industries  of  To-day — Mason 
Under  Sunny  Skies — Mason 
Little  People  of  the  Snow — Muller 
Eskimo  Stories — Smith 
Heidi — Spyri 

Pete — Cow  Puncher — Ames 
Over  the  Andes — Butterworth 
Jan  of  the  Windmill  (Story  of  the 

Plains) — Ewmg 

Food   Products   of   the   World- 
Green 

Out  on  the  Pampas — Henty 
The  Story  of  the  Cowboy — Hough 
The  Fur  Seal's  Tooth— Munroe 
Snow  Shoes  and  Sledges— Munroe 
Prince  Dusty — Munroe 
Great    American    Industries 

Rocheleau 
Hunting  the  Grizzly — Roosevelt 


CHAPTER  XIV 
NUMBERS  AND  ARITHMETIC 

A  prominent  educator  once  made  the  statement  that  if 
he  could  have  a  normal  child  at  the  age  of  twelve  or  four- 
teen, he  could  teach  him  in  six  months  all  the  arithmetic 
he  would  ever  need  to  know.  If  so,  we  surely  ought  not  to 
hear  so  much  criticism  of  this  subject  as  it  is  taught  in  the 
schools.  We  hear  that  children  who  have  completed  the 
common  schools,  and  in  some  cases  even  the  high  schools, 
cannot  do  ordinary  work  in  numbers.  Inaccuracy  is  the 
first  complaint,  and  that  students  are  slow  in  the  funde- 
mental  operations  is  the  second.  It  should  not  be  under- 
stood that  pupils  are  more  backward  in  number  processes 
than  they  were  a  generation  or  two  ago.  They  are  not. 
On  the  whole,  our  rural  and  elementary  schools  are  far 
superior  to  those  of  former  generations,  but  there  is  more 
demand  in  the  commercial  world  for  the  products  of  these 
schools  to  use  what  they  have  learned;  hence,  the  work 
must  be  more  thorough. 

The  defects  in  arithmetic  as  it  is  applied  to  business 
are  probably  largely  due  to  the  fact  that  school  arithmetic 
has  not  been  the  business  man's  arithmetic.  We  go  on 
teaching  processes  that  are  never  used  outside  the  school- 
room merely  because  they  are  in  the  book.  In  some  cases, 
where  a  more  up-to-date  text  is  in  use,  the  teacher  actually 
" works  in"  some  of  these  obsolete  exercises  from  a  text 
or  notebook  that  she  used,  in  order  to  give  the  "mental 
training"  the  children  should  get  from  arithmetic.  If  she 
could  only  realize  what  a  wealth  of  mental  training  there 
is  in  really  mastering  the  fundamentals,  and  then  applying 
them  to  real  problems  outside  of  school,  less  time  would 

175 


176  RURAL  EDUCATION 

be  wasted  on  this  subject.  Time  is  worse  than  wasted, 
because  too  often  book  arithmetic  is  not  interesting,  and 
students  become  indifferent  in  the  advanced  grades  where 
they  should  be  doing  their  best  work. 

Textbooks  in  arithmetic  are  important  and  the  best 
that  can  be  obtained  should  be  used  in  the  rural  schools. 
We  have  all  seen  books  that  no  village  school  would  use, 
retained  in  rural  schools  on  account  of  a  contract  price  that 
may  save  the  district  a  few  cents  or  dollars.  The  fault  lies 
with  the  school  board.  The  teacher  who  finds  such  condi- 
tions is  sometimes  helpless.  She  should  always  have  the 
courage  to  ask  for  efficient  equipment.  Then,  if  the  board 
refuses,  it  is  not  her  fault.  She  should  be  familiar  with 
what  subject  matter  should  be  taught  in  each  grade  or 
division  of  the  school.  Many  teachers  do  not  have  the 
subject  systematized.  Too  often  the  work  in  numbers  is 
indefinite  and  unrelated.  One  teacher,  not  knowing,  per- 
haps, what  another  has  taught,  repeats  work  and  omits 
other  essentials  altogether.  Undoubtedly  much  valuable 
time  and  energy  are  lost.  The  teacher  ought  to  have  a 
mental  outline  of  what  is  suitable  material  for  the  primary 
division,  the  intermediate  grades,  and  for  the  advanced 
classes.  In  a  measure  she  will  then  be  independent  of  the 
textbooks,  and,  in  any  event,  will  be  able  to  conduct  the 
oral  work,  so  much  more  *of  which  is  needed  in  all  our 
schools,  in  a  systematic  and  efficient  manner. 

Formal  number  work  should  not  begin  too  early.  There 
is  some  difference  of  opinion  as  to  where  one  should  begin 
to  teach  arithmetic.  Some  begin  in  the  first  year,  and  others 
in  the  second  or  third.  Inasmuch  as  the  main  theme  of 
the  first  three  years  should  be  the  mechanics  of  reading, 
together  with  the  oral  language  work,  it  would  seem  that 
whatever  work  in  numbers  is  given,  should  be  largely  inci- 


NUMBERS  AND  ARITHMETIC  177 

dental.  I  should  have  no  formal  number  work  in  the  first 
grade  of  a  city  school,  not  to  mention  a  rural  school  where 
so  much  less  time  is  available  for  reading  and  language.  In 
the  second  and  third  it  should  be  incidental  and  occupational. 
For  example,  the  pupil  should  know  the  time  by  the  clock, 
the  day  of  the  month,  the  page  of  the  book.  In  other  words, 
he  should  know  how  to  count  and  use  numbers  that  he  needs 
to  know  in  his  daily  work.  The  industrial  work  and  other 
lessons  will  give  opportunities  to  form  such  definite  number 
concepts  as  are  needed  in  this  division.  For  those  who 
desire  to  teach  numbers  in  the  first  years  of  school  an  out- 
line as  usually  taught  is  suggested. 

FIRST  DIVISION 

The  aim  of  the  First  Division  is  to  give  a  definite  concept 
of  each  number  as  it  is  introduced,  and  to  teach  number 
facts  and  promote  speed  and  accuracy  in  the  use  of  them. 
In  short,  the  aim  is  to  furnish  a  sound  and  usable  basis  for 
the  advanced  work.  No  formal,  logical  analysis  or  reason- 
ing should  be  expected,  of  course,  and  no  textbook  should 
be  used  in  the  hands  of  the  pupils.  The  program,  as  sug- 
gested in  the  three  division  plan,  provides  for  all  three 
classes  of  the  First  Division  to  recite  at  the  same  time,  thus 
giving  each  student  thirty  minutes  under  the  direct  super- 
vision of  the  teacher  instead  of  only  ten  minutes,  if  each 
were  to  recite  separately.  This  arrangement  will  give  any 
energetic  teacher  time  enough  to  present  the  work  to  each 
class  in  turn  and  keep  the  other  two  busy  at  the  board  while 
she  has  the  one  at  the  recitation  seats. 

The  first  year  work,  as  already  stated,  should  be  largely 
incidental.  Numbers  may  be  used  in  games,  handwork, 
nature  study,  reading,  and  seat  work.  Suggestions  for  this 
year  are  given  in  the  teacher's  manual,  or  first  book  of  any 
12— 


178  RURAL  EDUCATION 

late  arithmetic  series.  By  the  end  of  the  year  the  children 
will  be  able  to  read  and  write  simple  numbers  within  their 
comprehension,  to  count  to  a  reasonable  number,  and  to 
recognize  equalities  and  differences.  If  formal  number  is 
required,  number  facts  should  be  taught  up  to  ten. 

The  second  and  third  year  work  should  continue  in  the 
same  manner.  Read  and  write  numbers  that  are  actually 
used  in  other  work  of  these  years.  Teach  counting  by 
twos,  threes,  fours,  fives,  and  tens,  up  to  one  hundred. 
This  will  lay  the  foundation  for  the  formal  number  work  of 
the  Second  Division.  Present  simple  fractions,  as  one  half, 
one  third,  one  fourth,  one  fifth,  and  others  within  the  under- 
standing of  the  child.  This  is  done  with  objects  only  at 
this  time.  Work  with  measures,  as  the  peck,  gallon,  quart, 
pint,  yard,  foot,  inch,  pound  and  ounce.  Of  course  a  set  of 
these  measures  must  be  part  of  the  school  equipment  for 
effective  results.  Many  special  devices  for  the  seat  work 
in  number  should  be  used.  A  good  primary  magazine  will 
give  valuable  assistance.  With  a  printing  press  and  some 
oak  tag  card  board,  several  sets  of  flash  cards  may  be  made. 
These  should  supplement  any  other  material  that  may  be 
on  hand,  as  they  can  be  made  to  suit  the  work  as  taught 

each  month. 

SECOND  DIVISION 

The  four  fundamental  operations  in  number — addition, 
subtraction,  multiplication,  and  division,  together  with 
simple  work  in  common  and  decimal  fractions,  ought  to  be 
so  presented  and  drilled,  that,  if  the  student  should  go  no 
further  in  school,  he  would  be  able  to  use  arithmetic  in  any 
ordinary  work.  This  purpose  is  not  theoretical ;  it  is  entirely 
possible.  The  two  classes  can  be  together  or  not  in  the 
work,  depending  upon  what  they  have  had  in  the  First 
Division;  but,  in  any  event,  they  should  recite  at  the  same 


NUMBERS  AND  ARITHMETIC  179 

time.  One  class  may  be  at  the  board  while  the  teacher  is 
presenting  the  new  work  and  assigning  the  lesson  to  the 
other.  Flash  cards  and  special  devices  should  be  used  as 
in  the  First  Division.  A  large  amount  of  the  work  for  this 
division  should  be  oral.  Have  a  good  oral  arithmetic  on 
the  desk  as  a  guide;  otherwise,  the  work  may  not  be  syste- 
matic. This  division  is  the  period  in  which  all  the  necessary 
tables  should  be  fixed  in  mind.  Cancellation,  factoring, 
greatest  common  divisor  and  least  common  multiple  should 
be  taught  only  as  they  can  be  directly  applied.  All  opera- 
tions should  be  confined  to  common  business  numbers. 

Business  arithmetic  is  not  hard.  It  is  the  schoolbook 
work  in  numbers  that  is  difficult  and  perplexing  for  the  stu- 
dent. We  teach  tables  as  they  happen  to  be  found  in  the 
textbooks  and  then  fail  to  vitalize  them  in  application  to 
real  life.  There  are  but  ninety  different  processes  in  num- 
bers, and  omitting  the  combinations  with  the  digit  one, 
which  are  really  axiomatic,  there  are  only  seventy-two.  If 
these  and  their  simple  applications  are  thoroughly  mastered, 
there  is  little  occasion  for  complex  problems.  The  teacher 
must  know  how  to  present  the  mechanics  of  arithmetic,  as 
she  must  know  the  phonics  for  the  foundation  of  reading,  if 
she  expects  success.  I  was  never  taught  any  tables  but 
those  in  multiplication,  and  never  knew  those  thoroughly 
until  I  began  to  teach.  The  whole  hundred  and  forty-four 
processes  were  given,  and  for  several  years  we  repeated  them, 
parrot-like,  without  making  any  use  of  most  of  them.  Many 
books  now  give  addition  tables  and  other  mechanics  of  num- 
bers, but  they  are  usually  too  complicated.  The  old  spiral  ser- 
ies is  giving  way  to  topical  books  for  the  advanced  students. 

Addition  and  subtraction  tables  should  be  mastered  in 
the  Second  Division.  It  is  not  necessary  to  teach  a  new 
set  of  subtraction  tables;  in  fact,  it  may  be  confusing  to  do 


180  RURAL  EDUCATION 

so.  For  instance,  2+4  =  6  is  one  of  the  addition  tables.  It 
is  much  better  to  teach  the  inverse  of  this  at  once,  or  6 — 4=2 
and  6 — 2=4,  by  thinking  what  number  added  to  4  equals  6, 
and  what  number  added  to  2  equals  6.  This  is  the  "making 
change"  method  of  teaching  subtraction  and  will  be  easy 
for  the  pupils,  if  it  is  not  hard  for  the  teacher.  In  this  way 
addition  and  subtraction  will  be  taught  at  the  same  time, 
as  they  should  be,  and  the  application  to  simple  problems 
may  be  made  as  the  tables  are  being  learned.  Nearly  all  of 
the  problem  work  should  be  oral  in  this  division.  I  have 
seen  a  hundred  exercises  and  problems  solved  in  oral  work  in 
less  time  than  it  usually  takes  to  do  ten  of  the  same  kind  in 
the  average  lesson,  because  the  average  lesson  is  written 
and  formal.  The  forty-five  processes  for  addition,  and  also 
for  subtraction  as  indicated  above,  are  given  for  those  who 
may  not  have  used  them.  As  already  stated,  the  first 
column  of  ones  may  be  omitted,  if  desired,  as  the  counting 
of  the  First  Division  work  will  show  the  pupil  that  one 
added  to  any  number  will  give  the  next  number. 

Addition  Tables 

The  inverse  process  teaches  subtraction. 

(1)                               (2)  (3)                               (4) 

1+1=2                      2+2=4  3+3=6                      4+4=8 

1+2=3                      2+3=5  3+4=7                      4+5=9 

1+3=4                      2+4=6  3+5=8                      4+6=10 

1+4=5                      2+5=7  3+6=9                      4+7=11 

1+5=6                      2+6  =  8  3+7  =  10                    4+8  =  12 

1+6  =  7                      2+7=9  3+8  =  11                    4+9  =  13 

1+7=8                      2+8  =  10  3+9  =  12 
1+8  =  9                      2+9  =  11 
1+9  =  10 

(5)  (6)  (7)  (8) 

5+5  =  10  6+6  =  12  7+7  =  14  8+8  =  16 

5+6  =  11  6+7  =  13  7+8  =  15  8+9  =  17 

5+7  =  12  6+8  =  14  7+9  =  16 

5+8  =  13  6+9  =  15  (9) 

5+9  =  14  9+9  =  18 


NUMBERS  AND  ARITHMETIC  181 

Counting  by  twos,  threes,  etc.,  up  to  ten,  as  suggested 
for  the  First  Division  work,  will  prepare  the  pupil  for  the 
study  of  these  tables.  An  average  of  two  of  these  processes 
each  week  during  the  fourth  school  year  will  be  sufficient  to 
master  the  entire  list,  and  three  days  a  week  may  be  spent 
on  their  application  in  oral  exercises  and  problems. 

Multiplication  Tables 
The  inverse  process  teaches  division. 


(1) 

(2) 

(3) 

(4) 

(5) 

1X1  =  1 

2X2=4 

3X3=9 

4X4  =  16 

5X5=25 

1X2  =  2 

2X3=6 

3X4  =  12 

4X5=20 

5X6  =  30 

1X3  =  3 

2X4  =  8 

3X5  =  15 

4X6=24 

5X7  =  35 

1X4=4 

2X5  =  10 

3X6  =  18 

4X7=28 

5X8=40 

1X5  =  5 

2X6  =  12 

3X7=21 

4X8  =  32 

5X9=45 

1X6  =  6 

2X7  =  14 

3X8  =  24 

4X9=36 

1X7  =  7 

2X8  =  16 

3X9=27 

1X8  =  8 

2X9  =  18 

1X9  =  9 

(6) 

(7) 

(8) 

(9) 

6X6  =  36 

7X7=49 

8X8  =  64 

9X9  =  81 

6X7=42 

7X8  =  56 

8X9=72 

6X8  =  48 

7X9  =  63 

6X9  =  54 

Eliminating  the  first  column  of  ones,  which  the  student 
already  knows,  there  are  but  thirty-six  processes  in  multi- 
plication. The  other  three  fourths  of  what  we  used  to  learn 
in  the  multiplication  tables  is  either  review  or  unnecessary 
work.  The  elevens  and  twelves  were  only  half-learned  from 
counting.  As  each  process  is  learned  the  other  two  processes 
derived  from  it  should  be  studied,  as  2x6  =  12 ;  hence,  12-^6  =  2. 
Two  of  these  learned  each  week  during  the  fifth  school  year 
will  give  three  days  a  week  for  application  and  ample  time 
for  review  at  the  end  of  the  year. 

Common  and  decimal  fractions  should  also  be  studied 
during  the  fifth  year.  Not  in  the  manner  given  in  many 
books,  but  continuing  with  the  simple  business  fractions 
of  the  First  Division.  In  fact,  all  that  is  necessary  for  these 


182  RURAL  EDUCATION 

grades  is  the  half,  the  fourth,  the  tenth,  and  the  hundredth, 
and  their  divisions,  as  three  fourths,  nine  tenths,  etc. 

The  student  should  be  taught  to  write  the  fraction  both 
ways  when  he  first  learns  it.  The  American  money  will 
teach  about  all  the  decimals  needed,  if  the  teacher  will 
make  the  pupils  "see  the  point."  It  is  the  decimal  point 
that  causes  all  the  trouble  in  that  subject. 

Fractions  Needed 

Common  %,  M,  Ko,  Koo 
Decimal  .50,  .25,    .10,    .01. 

By  using  the  zero  in  the  decimals  for  one  half  and  one 
tenth,  the  decimal  will  be  written  as  fifty  cents  and  ten 
cents,  forms  with  which  the  student  is  probably  already 
familiar.  It  is  evident  that  any  multiple  of  these  fractions 
can  be  taught  in  connection  with  these.  Other  fractions 
than  those  here  suggested  are  rare  in  business,  and  yet 
how  we  still  torture  the  child  and  ourselves  by  teaching 
something  hard!  For  example,  where,  outside  the  school- 
room, do  we  meet  a  monstrosity  like  this? 

Reduce:      2% 


2% 

This  is  not  difficult,  if  one  remembers  that  a  fraction 
is  merely  another  way  of  expressing  division,  and  reduces 
it  accordingly;  but  it  is  unsound  pedagogically,  and  pos- 
itively silly  to  waste  time  in  school  with  such  work.  But 
some  textbooks  are  still  guilty. 

The  arithmetical  processes  suggested  for  the  Second 
Division  are  surely  not  difficult,  and  any  school  can  master 
them  and  be  able  to  apply  the  numbers  to  real  conditions 


NUMBERS  AND  ARITHMETIC  183 

in  the  two  years  of  this  division,  whether  any  work  in  num- 
bers has  been  given  in  the  previous  years  or  not. 

THIRD  DIVISION 

The  two  classes  of  the  division  should  be  combined  and 
work  together.  If  the  work  as  outlined  for  the  Second 
Division  needs  reviewing,  that  should  be  taken  up  first. 
The  new  work  will  be  largely  percentage  and  its  applica- 
tion to  business.  Some  of  the  topics  are  profit  and  loss, 
insurance,  interest,  checks,  notes,  bills,  etc.  Any  good 
text  may  be  used  and  the  topics  selected  that  are  suitable 
for  the  Third  Division  work.  Half  of  the  course  is  given 
to  the  combined  classes  one  year,  and  the  other  half  the  next. 

Accounts  should  be  taught  in  this  division.  Egg  re- 
cord and  other  blanks  may  be  obtained  from  your  Exten- 
sion Division  of  the  Agricultural  College  and  copies  made 
and  used.  Make  up  some  ledger  rulings  on  sheets  or  cards 
and  teach  practical  accounts.  Use  the  actual  data  in  this 
work.  The  students  will  enjoy  keeping  the  accounts, 
and  in  this  way  the  arithmetic  they  have  learned  can  be 
applied  to  daily  life.  Encourage  the  boys  to  keep  accounts 
for  the  farm  business  and  the  girls  to  keep  home  accounts. 
All  they  need  to  know  is  the  idea  of  what  an  account  is, 
the  kind  of  ruling  used,  the  debit  and  credit  sides  and  when 
to  debit  and  credit  an  account.  The  student  can  be  taught 
to  debit  an  account  when  the  account  receives,  and  to  credit 
an  account  when  the  account  parts  with  something.  For 
every  debit  entered  on  one  account,  there  must  always  be 
a  corresponding  credit  on  some  other  account.  Hence, 
the  sum  of  the  debits  of  all  the  accounts  must  always  equal 
the  sum  of  the  credits  of  all  the  accounts.  This  kind  of 
work  is  not  too  difficult  for  pupils  of  the  upper  classes; 
it  is  really  not  as  hard  as  some  of  the  problems  often  given, 


184 


RURAL  EDUCATION 


and  it  will  be  much  more  useful.  An  inventory  should 
be  taken  first.  The  boys  may  make  this  for  the  farm, 
stock,  implements,  etc.,  and  the  girls,  for  the  home  in  the 
same  manner. 

Six  or  eight  accounts  are  all  that  are  necessary  to  keep 
the  farm  transactions  in  a  business  way.  The  same  number 
will  suffice  for  the  home.  For  the  farm  the  following  ac- 
counts may  be  started  and  others  added  if  desirable:  Cash, 
Dairy  or  Live  Stock,  Corn,  Grain,  or  an  account  for  each 
kind  of  grain  as  desired,  and  Personal  Accounts.  For  the 
home:  Cash,  Food  Supplies,  Household  Furnishings,  Clo- 
thing, Rent,  Fuel  and  Light,  Miscellaneous,  and  Personal 
Accounts.  Suggestive  inventories  and  accounts  are  given. 

In  the  accounts  on  the  next  two  pages  (185  and  186) 
the  Italics  should  be  written  in  red  ink,  according  to  the 
usual  custom  of  bookkeepers. 

SUGGESTIVE  ACCOUNTS 

CONTINUED  INVENTORIES 


Items 

Remarks 

Jan.  1, 
1914 

Jan.  1, 
1915 

Jan.  1, 
1916 

Kitchen   Utensils 
1  Range  
1  Tea  Kettle  
2  Dish  Pans 

3yrs.  old  
Nickel  
Enamel 

40  00 
1   50 
1   50 

36  00 
1  00 
1  00 

Etc  

Dining  Room 
1  Table 

Quar   Oak 

22  50 

20  00 

6  Chairs  
Table  Linen 

Quar.  Oak  
Cloths,  Napkins 

9  00 
12  50 

7  00 
8  50 

Etc  

- 

Living  Room 
2  Rockers 

Oak 

15  00 

12  00 

1  Stand 

Oak  

3  75 

3  25 

1  Rue 

Wilton 

18  00 

16  00 

Etc 

Hall 
1  Hall  Tree 

Oak 

4  50 

4  25 

1   Rug                          

Brussels  

8  50 

7  00 

Bedrooms 
2  Bedsteads 

17  50 

16  5C 

2  Rugs 

Rag  

6  00 

4  00 

Oak 

18  00 

16  00 

NUMBERS  AND  ARITHMETIC 


185 


S.  A.  NORBERG 


Date 

Brought  Forward 

Date 

Brought  Forward 

3-16 

Received  Check  

2  60 

1-5 
1-9 

1  Sack  Flour  
2  Ibs.  Dairy  Butter  @  25c. 

2  10 
50 

2  60 

2  60 

C.  A.  SWANSON 


Date 
1-16 

Brought  Forward 
Received  Check  . 

3  30 

Date 
1-4 

Brought  Forward 
2  Kitchen  Chairs  @  75c 

1  50 

1-6 

Picture  Wire  
2  yds.  Linoleum  @  85c  .  .  . 

10 

1  70 

3  30 

3  30 

A.  L.  THELANDER  &  CO. 


Date 
1-16 

Brought  Forward 
By  Check 

4  85 

Date 

1-11 
1-14 

1-16 

Brought  Forward 

5  gal.  Kerosene  @  15c  .  .  . 
2  pkgs.  Needles  @  lOc  .  .  . 
1  pr.  Shoes      .           .    . 

75 
20 
3  50 
50 
90 

1  pr.  Yarn  Gloves  
6  yds.  Gingham  @  15c.  .  . 

4  85 

4  85 

MRS.  HENRY  SMITH 


Date 
/  -16 

Brought  Forward 
Monthly  Allowance  

40  00 

Date 
1-2 

Brought  Forward 
Received  Check 

40  00 

40  00 

40  00 

CASH 


Date 
1-2 

Brought  Forward 
Received  Check 

40  00 

Date 
1-2 

Brought  Forward 
2  Ibs   Mutton  @  15c 

30 

1  Ib.  Lard  ' 

18 

Paid  Rent  .    ... 

10  00 

1-10 
1-16 

Church  Collections  
A.  L.  Thelander  &  Co.  .  .  . 
S.  A.  Norberg  

50 
4  85 
2  60 

1-16 

C.  A.  Swanson  
Bal.  on  Hand  

3  30 

18  27 

40  00 

40  00 

1-16 

Bal.  on  Hand  

18  27 

186 


RURAL  EDUCATION 
RENT,  FUEL  &  LIGHTING 


Date 

1-2 
1-11 

Brought  Forward 

Paid  Rent  
5  gal.  Kerosene  @  15c.  .  . 

10  00 
75 

Date 
3-16 

Brought  Forward 

10  75 

10  75 

10  75 

HOUSEHOLD  FURNISHINGS 


Date 

Brought  Forward 

Date 

Brought  Forward 

1-4 
1-6 

2  Kitchen  Chairs  @  75c.  . 
Picture  Wire  

1  50 
10 

3-16 

House  F.  Expense  

3  30 

2  yds.  Linoleum  @  85c  .  .  . 

1  70 

3  30 

3  30 

CLOTHING 


Date 

Brought  Forward 

Date 

Brought  Forward 

1-14 
1-16 

1  pr.  Shoes  
1  pr    Yarn  Gloves 

3  50 
50 
90 

3-16 

Clothing  Expense  

4  90 

6  yds.  Gingham  @  15c.  .  . 

4  90 

4  90 

FOOD  SUPPLIES 


Date 
1-2 

Brought  Forward 
2  Ibs    Mutton  @  15c 

30 

Date 
1-16 

Brought  Forward 
Food  Expense 

3  OS 

1  Ib.  Lard  

18 

1-5 

1  Sack  Flour 

2   10 

1-9 

2  Ibs.  Butter  @  25c  

50 

3  08 

3  08 

MISCELLANEOUS 


Date 

1-10 
1-14 

Brought  Forward 

Church  Collection  ...... 
2  pkgs.  Needles  @  lOc  .  .  . 

50 
20 

Date 
3-16 

Brought  Forward 
Misc.  Expense  

70 
70 

70 

CHAPTER  XV 
SEAT  WORK  AND  SPECIAL  DEVICES 

Many  good  class  teachers  fail  to  get  results  from  pu- 
pils who  are  at  their  desks.  The  advanced  classes  will 
have  books  to  study,  but  the  younger  children  have  not 
yet  learned  to  study,  and  must  be  provided  with  plenty 
of  seat  work.  The  busy  teacher  often  feels  that  she  does 
not  have  the  time  to  prepare  such  work,  and  primary  classes 
are  sometimes  left  to  shift  for  themselves  while  other  classes 
are  being  conducted.  Seat  work  must  be  definitely  planned 
and  faithfully  executed.  Materials  must  be  carefully  ar- 
ranged according  to  subjects  and  grades  and  used  system- 
atically. Monitors  may  be  appointed  to  distribute  and 
collect  the  boxes  or  envelopes  containing  the  seat  work 
thus  allowing  the  teacher  to  conduct  her  classes  without 
loss  of  time. 

Seat  Work 

Industrial  work  may  be  given  for  part  of  the  seat  work 
for  primary  students,  as  they  may  not  stay  for  that  work 
at  the  general  period  in  the  afternoon.  Suitable  outlines 
for  industrial  work  are  given  in  Chapter  XVII. 

Free-hand  cutting  is  interesting  and  useful  seat  work. 
Dull  pointed  scissors  costing  only  fifty  or  sixty  cents  a  dozen 
should  be  used  for  this  work.  There  is  no  better  way  to 
determine  whether  a  student  got  the  thought  of  an  oral 
lesson  than  by  letting  him  illustrate  it  with  paper  cutting. 
The  Pilgrims,  Christmas  Stories,  Little  Red  Riding  Hood, 
etc.,  are  suggestive  stories  that  might  be  illustrated. 

Drawing  is  always  interesting  work  for  children,  and 
part  of  the  vacant  periods  of  the  primary  division  can 
profitably  be  devoted  to  it.  Ordinary  white  drawing 

187 


188 


RURAL  EDUCATION 


paper  and  pencil  may  be  used,  but  a  few  colored  pencils 
and  charcoal  sticks  will  add  to  the  interest.  Seasonal 
subjects  should  be  selected,  as  fruit  in  the  fall,  snow  scenes 
in  winter,  and  flowers  in  the  spring.  Water  color  work  is 
also  desirable,  if  it  is  properly  supervised  and  not  overdone. 
Special  seat  work  in  language,  geography,  and  arith- 
metic should  follow  the  class  work  in  those  subjects.  A 
few  devices  are  suggested.  Many  of  them  are  not  new, 
but  they  may  be  helpful  to  the  young  teacher.  . 

LANGUAGE  SEAT  WORK 

Printing  presses  are  not  expensive.  A  few  of  these  in 
the  primary  division  would  supply  a  large  amount  of  prac- 
tical work  in  language.  In  a  crowded  school  the  older 
students  should  assist  with  this  work. 

Buried  words  to  be  selected  from  words  and  sentences 
and  listed  will  be  helpful  occasionally.  For  example,  "He 
arose  from  his  seat."  Find  a  flower  and  a  body  of  water. 
The  answer  is  "rose"  and  "sea." 

Letter  and  phonic  drill.  A  card  of  oak  tag  four 
by  thirteen  inches  is  ruled  off  into  inch  squares.  The  first 
thirteen  letters  are  written  in  the  upper  row,  and  the  last 
thirteen  in  the  third  row.  On  the  back  of  the  card  have 


a 

b 

c 

d 

<L 

f 

9 

h 

i 

j 

k 

1 

m 

( 

a^ 

,<X/J 

t£&<. 

U&, 

•0 

n 

o 

P 

q 

r 

S 

t 

u 

V 

w 

X 

4 

z 

Figure  11.     Letter  and  phonic  drill. 


&EAT  WORK  AND  SPECIAL  DEVICES 


189 


an  envelope  containing  all  the  letters  of  the  alphabet.  The 
game  is  to  match  the  letters  on  the  card*  This  device  may 
be  used  for  learning  the  letters  and  their  sounds.  See 
Figure  11.  One  card  is  needed  for  each  child. 

Word  and  phonic  drill.  Make  oak  tag  cards  about  eight 
by  twelve  inches.  With  ink  draw  the  root  part  of  the 
word,  and  add  the  other  letters,  as  in  the  card  with  the 


\ 

\ 

\ 

\    \ 


r- 


7urt 


AC 

Figure  12.     Word  and  phonic  drills. 


picture  of  a  cat.  The  words  catch,  cattle,  catkin,  catnip, 
and  catsup  are  suggested.  See  Figures  12  and  13  for  this 
and  others.  These  may  also  be  used  for  class  work. 

Lesson  stories.  On  a  card  of  oak  tag  six  by  twelve 
inches  paste  a  picture  at  one  end.  Pictures  for  this  may  be 
obtained  from  old  readers  or  magazines.  On  the  other 
end  of  the  card  write  words  at  the  top  and  underline  them. 
Then  write  sentences  about  the  picture;  but,  instead  of 
writing  the  words  selected  at  top  of  the  card,  put  a  dash  for 
each  word  omitted,  and  let  the  students  fill  in  the  blanks 
with  the  proper  words.  See  illustration. 

Word  drills.     Make  a  card  of  heavy  oak   tag   ten  by 


190 


RURAL  EDUCATION 


Figure  13.     Word  and  phonic  drills. 

twelve  inches  for  each  pupil  in  the  division.  At  the  top 
paste  three  or  four  small  pictures,  or  make  drawings. 
Underneath  each  picture  write  a  word  showing  something 
prominent  in  the  picture.  In  an  envelope  fastened  to  the 


(Pictur«    of  a 
mill,  wheel,  and 
a  boy    fishing.) 


Figure  14.     Language  lesson  story. 


SEAT  WORK  AND  SPECIAL  DEVICES 


191 


H41 
tf 

ChicKens 


Girl 


Kittens 


6now  Hen  Yejjoyy  Cat 


Figure  15.     Language  word  drills. 


back  of  the  card  have 
neat  slips,  each  contain- 
ing a  word  showing 
something  about  the 
picture.  See  Figure  15. 
These  cards  may  be 
exchanged  until  all  have 
used  them.  This  device 
should  supplement  the 
reading  lessons.  It  may 
also  be  used  to  good  ad- 
vantage occasionally  for 
language  drills  in  regular 
class  work  as  the  teacher 
may  find  opportunity. 


GEOGRAPHY  SEAT  WORK 

Clay  modeling  is  an  excellent  means  of  expressing  ideas 
of  many  geographical  forms.  Clay  may  be  purchased  in 
hundred  pound  kegs,  if  it  is  not  available  locally.  The 
powdered  form  may  also  be  bought  by  the  pound  at  small 
expense. 

Relief  maps  may  be  made  by  mixing  flour  and  salt  to 
the  proper  constituency  and  moulding  the  maps  on  stiff 
card  board.  Threads  soaked  in  bluing  are  used  for  the 
rivers. 

Matching  maps.  Secure  the  maps  of  several  states  or 
countries  from  old  geographies  or  other  sources.  Cut 
these  into  different  shapes.  Mix  the  pieces.  Let  the 
students  have  sets  of  these  and  match  them.  In  this  way 
they  will  become  familiar  with  the  maps. 

Matching  animals.  Get  pictures  of  the  characteristic 
animals  of  the  different  continents.  Cut  them  as  in  the 


192 


RURAL  EDUCATION 


case  of  the  maps.     Let  the  pupils  match  the  pieces  and 
learn  the  animals  of  each  continent. 

Map  drawing.  Let  the  children  draw  maps  of  the 
home  farm,  the  school  district,  township,  county  and 
state,  locating  the  interesting  features  in  colors.  A  blue 
pencil  can  be  used  for  rivers  and  lakes,  some  other  colors 
for  farm  homes,  silos,  creameries,  schoolhouses,  villages, 
and  other  places  of  interest.  Product  maps  may  be  made 
by  pasting  on  the  map  some  of  the  products  of  the  region, 
as  corn,  wheat,  oats,  etc. 

NUMBER  SEAT  WORK 

Toy  money  may  be  made  or  purchased.  Students  will 
find  a  great  deal  of  pleasure  in  using  this  at  their  seats  and 
can  learn  to  count  money  and  make  change  as  in  actual 
business.  One  set  for  each  person  is  required,  of  course. 

Domino  cards  are  easily  made.  Use  oak  tag  cards  six 
by  eight  inches.  Cut  out  disks  about  an  inch  in  diameter 
from  colored  paper,  red  being  particularly  attractive. 
Paste  these  on  the  cards  so  that  all  the  combinations  of 
the  addition  tables  (36)  will  be  formed.  Students  may 
use  these  at  the  seats  in  learning  the  tables,  and  they  may 
be  used  as  flash  cards  in  class  for  drill  work.  They  may 

also  be  used  in  subtrac- 
tion, multiplication  and 
division.  See  Figure  16. 
Dice  cubes.  Make 
or  buy  a  few  dozen 
blocks  one  inch  on  a 
side.  The  number  need- 
ed will  depend  upon  the 
size  of  the  class  using 
them.  With  ink,  put 
the  figures  for  all  the 


O 


O 


O     O 

O 
O     O 


Figure  16.     Domino  cards  for  number  work. 


SEAT  WORK  AND  SPECIAL  DEVICES  193 

combinations  in  addition  and  multiplication  tables.  At 
the  seats,  the  children  turn  over  any  two  blocks  at  one 
time  and  add,  subtract,  multiply  or  divide  the  two  figures, 
depending  upon  the  work  they  are  learning.  A  blotter 
on  the  desk  will  prevent  any  noise.  This  is  a  very  in- 
teresting device  for  most  children  and  is  well  worth  the 
time  it  takes  to  make  the  cubes.  In  class  the  cubes  may  be 
thrown  and  sides  chosen  to  see  which  side  can  answer  the 
most  numbers  correctly. 

Colored  pegs  are  useful  for  the  younger  children  when 
they  are  first  beginning  the  use  of  numbers.  These  may  be 
arranged  for  counting  or  for  grouping  in  learning  the  ad- 
dition and  multiplication  tables. 

Daisy  chains,  with  a  definite  number  of  certain  colors, 
may  be  used  to  good  advantage  in  number  work.  Hang 
them  up,  only  after  they  have  been  verified  to  be  correct 
as  to  the  directions  in  number.  These  and  the  colored 
pegs  may  be  used  for  sense  training  in  the  first  year,  before 
they  are  used  in  number  work. 

Corn  is  often  used  for  seat  work  in  arithmetic.  It  is 
easily  obtained  and  may  be  used  in  counting  and  grouping 
as  suggested  for  the  pegs  and  chains.  Get  fresh  corn  when 
that  in  use  becomes  soiled. 

OTHER  SEAT  WORK  SUGGESTIONS 

Pegs  may  be  used  to  illustrate  objects,  as,  a  hat,  chair, 
table,  telegraph  poles,  and  fences.  Wall  paper  is  easily 
obtained.  The  figures  may  be  cut  out  and  assorted  accord- 
ing to  shape  and  color.  A  leaf  book  in  which  to  press  and 
trace  autumn  leaves  is  interesting  in  the  fall.  Seeds  and 
berries  may  also  be  used  for  color  and  grouping.  Paper 
may  be  folded  to  make  furniture,  for  example,  a  cup-board, 
showing  the  shelves,  linen,  dishes,  fruit,  etc.  The  common 

13— 


194  RURAL  EDUCATION 

rule  can  usually  be  obtained  free  from  lumber  firms.  Chil- 
dren can  use  this  in  drawing  lines,  making  squares,  and  in 
measuring  distances.  Posters  for  the  room  and  to  take 
home  may  be  made  from  cardboard,  objects  representing 
Thanksgiving,  turkeys,  pumpkins,  squirrels,  pilgrims,  wig- 
wams, Indians,  etc.  A  blank  book  for  the  child  to  put  in 
anything  he  chooses,  to  be  checked  up  by  the  teacher  at 
the  end  of  the  term,  will  often  develop  originality. 

The  following  seat  work  suggestions  from  the  outline 
of  a  good  primary  teacher  may  be  helpful. 

1.  Pictures  in  envelopes.     Name  should  be  written  on 
each  one  and  on  outside  of  envelope.     Pupils  arrange  in 
order  they  are  written,  and,  later,  copy  the  names. 

2.  Sentences.     Cut    into    words    sentences    from    old 
readers.     Write  these  sentences  on  the  outside  of  the  en- 
velope, and  have  students  make  up  the  sentence  from  the 
words. 

3.  Make  words  known  on  a  page  from  an  old  reader. 

4.  To   follow   directions.     Write    the    word    found    as 
follows:     Page  4,  line  2,  word  6. 

5.  Names.     Write  the  names  of  ten  actions,  ten  birds, 
ten  flowers,  ten  animals,  ten  persons,  ten  cities. 

6.  Blanks.     Fill  in  with  words  or  pictures. 

7.  Questions  and  answers  that  will  form  a  story  of  the 
lesson,  or  show  preparation. 

8.  Rhyme  words,  as  book,  look,  cook,  hook,  etc. 

9.  Copy  all  that  one  character  says  in  a  story. 
10.     Cross  out  all  the  silent  letters  in  a  list. 

DEVICES  FOR  CLASS  USE 
Language 

Dramatization    has    already    been    mentioned.     It    is 
always  interesting,  even  to  the  most  timid,  if  the  teacher 


SEAT  WORK  AND  SPECIAL  DEVICES  195 

uses  care  in  getting  the  children  to  respond.  Only  selec- 
tions worth  while  should  be  dramatized. 

Acting  titles.  Members  of  the  class  leave  the  room 
and  decide  upon  the  name  of  some  familiar  book.  They 
then  return  and  act  out  the  title.  If  guessed  correctly, 
other  members  of  the  class  act  another  title  in  a  similar 
manner. 

Reading  quotations  and  naming  authors.  Familiar 
quotations  are  written  on  convenient  pieces  of  oak  tag 
card.  The  quotations  are  drawn  and  read  by  the  pupils. 
Each  reader  attempts  to  give  the  author  of  the  quotation. 
If  he  fails,  the  slip  returns  to  the  pile :  otherwise  he  keeps  it. 
The  individual,  or  side,  having  the  most  slips  at  the  end  of 
a  given  time  wins  the  game. 

Time  conversations.  The  class  is  divided  evenly,  and 
the  players  are  paired  off.  One  of  the  two  draws  a  slip 
containing  a  topic  of  conversation.  The  pair  must  rise  and 
converse  about  the  topic  suggested  until  the  time  is  up. 
Begin  with  one  minute  and  gradually  work  up  to  four  or  five. 

Teakettle  is  an  old  but  interesting  game.  One  mem- 
ber of  the  class  retires  until  the  others  decide  on  a  word. 
He  then  returns  and  asks  questions  of  each  pupil  in  turn. 
The  pupil  must  answer  in  a  sentence  containing  the  word 
selected,  but  substitutes  the  word  "teakettle"  instead  of 
using  the  word.  The  one  asking  the  questions  attempts 
to  guess  the  word  from  the  answers.  If  a  word  having 
more  than  one  meaning  is  selected,  as  "plum,"  "plumb," 
it  is  harder  to  guess  and  more  interesting. 

Geography 

Alphabet  games  are  played  in  a  manner  similar  to  a  spel- 
ling contest.  One  leader  starts  by  naming  some  city  that 
begins  with  A.  The  other  leader  must  name  another 


19(5  RURAL  EDUCATION 

that  begins  with  A  before  ten  can  be  counted,  or  take  his 
seat.  The  next  person  in  line  names  a  city  beginning  with 
the  same  or  next  letter  in  the  alphabet,  and  so  on.  The 
side  having  the  most  pupils  left  at  the  end  of  the  time 
wins  the  game. 

A  body  of  water,  mountain,  or  other  geographical  subject 
may  be  taken  instead  of  a  city,  as  in  the  first  case.  Written 
games  may  be  played  in  the  same  way,  allowing  one  min- 
ute for  each  letter.  These  are  checked  and  the  scores 
compared. 

A  traveler  is  chosen  and  assigned  a  place  from  which 
he  is  to  start.  He  must  tell  about  his  journey,  stating  his 
route  of  travel,  places  visited,  the  people,  occupations, 
etc.  Another  follows,  giving  his  experiences,  until  all  have 
been  chosen.  Geography  may  be  reviewed  in  this  manner. 

Drawing  geographical  topics  written  on  a  piece  of  paper 
and  mixed  is  an  interesting  device.  Each  must  give  an  oral 
description  of  the  country  or  places  mentioned  on  the  slip. 

Exports  and  imports  may  be  given  by  two  persons  at 
a  time  playing  merchants.  The  two  state  the  countries 
with  which  they  trade,  and  the  others  must  guess  what  they 
sell  each  other. 

Class  Devices  in  Numbers 

Counting  by  twos,  threes,  fours,  etc.,  up  to  tens  to 
lay  the  foundations  for  the  tables.  Choose  sides,  and  as 
soon  as  one  side  makes  a  mistake  the  other  chooses  a  player 
from  that  side. 

Domino  cards  discussed  for  seat  work  should  be  used 
in  class  as  flash  cards  for  rapid  oral  drills  in  addition,  sub- 
traction, multiplication  and  division. 

Number  tops  may  be  made  of  wood  or  cardboard  and 
numbers  put  on  the  hexagonal  sides,  and  one  on  the  top. 


SEAT  WORK  AND  SPECIAL  DEVICES 


197 


In  addition  the  numbers  for  several  spins  may  be  taken. 
The  number  on  the  top  may  be  used  in  multiplication  and 
division. 

Bean  bag  is  played  by  tossing  small  bags  filled  with 
beans  through  holes  in  a  board  placed  at  an  angle  several 
feet  away.  The  larger  holes  to  count  less  than  the  smaller. 
Ten,  five,  three,  two  and  one,  may  be  the  points  for  the  holes 
beginning  with  the  smallest.  Each  player  throws  three 
bags  and  gives  his  total  score.  Sides  may  be  chosen  and 
scores  kept  on  the  blackboard. 

Tenpins  are  made  of  cardboard  cylinders  and  set  upon 
the  floor.  The  pupils  use  rubber  balls  or  small  wooden 
spheres,  and  bowl  from  a  convenient  distance.  Scores  are 
kept  on  the  blackboard. 

Playing  store  with  objects  representing  merchandise 
and  with  toy  money  is  very  interesting  to  children  when 
first  beginning  the  study  of  numbers.  Weights  and  measures 
should  be  used  also,  if  they  are  available. 

Numbers  in  Arabic  and  Ro- 
man, as  well  as  the  word  for 
each  number  up  to  ten,  may  be 
used  for  primary  children. 
Make  a  card  seven  by  ten 
inches  of  oak  tag.  On  the  left 
write  the  Arabic  figures.  Have 
the  Roman  numerals  and  the 
words  in  a  pocket  on  the  back 
of  the  card.  The  pupils  place 
them  in  the  other  columns  as 
suggested  in  the  cut.  See  Fig- 
ure 17. 

Bridge  board  is  noisy,  but 


/ 

I 

One. 

2 

n 

Two 

3 

jtU 

jjic 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

(0 

198 


RURAL  EDUCATION 


pine  by  boring  two  inch  holes  and  sawing  down  through 
the  centers  of  the  holes.  Fasten  supports  so  that  the 
bridge  will  stand  alone.  At  a  distance  of  ten  or  fifteen 
feet,  marbles  are  rolled  through  the  holes  which  are  numbered 
from  one  to  the  total  number  of  holes  in  the  board.  The 
numbers  over  the  arches  are  added  for  the  total  score. 

Fractional  parts  may  be  shown  by  pasting  forms  cut 
from  red  paper  to  a  large  chart  board  about  twenty-two 
by  twenty-eight  inches.  These  can  be  used  later  for  showing 
forms  of  area.  Whole  numbers  are  also  represented  to 
show  their  relation  to  the  fractional  parts.  See  Figure  18. 


-a 


Figure  18.     Single  fractions  and  whole  numbers. 

Arithmetical  races  may  be  played  by  choosing  sides  and 
solving  as  many  new  problems  as  can  be  done  in  a  given 
time.  Check  these  and  find  out  which  side  has  the  largest 
correct  answers.  These  number  of  races  may  be  varied  by 
using  mechanical  drills  instead  of  problems  and  exercises. 


SEAT  WORK  AND  SPECIAL  DEVICES 


199 


3 

2 

4 

2 

ia 

e 

e 

8 

5 

9 

Flash  cards  for 
drill  in  the  funda- 
mentals may  be 
made  from  oak  tag, 
cutting  the  cards 
four  by  four  inches. 
The  same  set  may 

Figure  19.     Flash  card3  for  rapid  drill.  be     used    ^     addi_ 

tion,  subtraction,  multiplication  and  division.  See  Figure  19. 
Merry-Go-Round.  Make  a  circular  card  about  two 

feet  in  diameter  from  chart  board.  Get  the  large  two- 
inch  figures  from  calen- 
dars and  paste  twelve  of 
these  on  the  chart,  as 
shown  in  the  cut.  Place 
a  figure  in  the  center, 
and  call  on  a  student 
to  give  the  computa- 
tion asked,  and  to  see 
if  he  can  go  around  the 
Merry-Go -Round  with- 
out falling  off.  All  of 
the  fundamental  opera- 
tions may  be  used  with 

Figure  20.     Merry-Go-Round  showing  figure       this  device.       See    Figure 
pinned  in  center.  nr\ 

Cardboard  charts  containing  a  list  of  numbers  to  give 
the  fractional  parts,  as  two  thirds  of  twenty-four,  and  one 
half  of  thirteen,  may  be  hung  on  the  board  and  the  an- 
swers written  on  the  blackboard  by  the  teacher  or  a 
student.  In  one,  the  numbers  would  be  written  in  the 
space  cut  out  of  the  chart,  as  suggested  in  the  drawing. 
In  the  other  the  answers  are  written  on  the  board  to  the 


200 


RURAL  EDUCATION 


right  of  the  chart.  The  reverse  side  of  the  chart  may  be 
used  for  a  different  set  of  drills.  Only  practical  fractions 
and  comparatively  small  numbers  should  be  used,  so  that 
all  the  drills  may  be  oral.  Rapid  work  is  the  secret  of 
success  in  these  drills.  See  Figure  21. 


r  is  == 

12  = 

H  — 

22  = 

2<1  = 

^ 

iof     < 

20  — 
8z= 

e 

0 

10    =r 

b 

18   =: 

1 

9    = 

13    = 

/ 

zn    G 

w 

18 

2of  < 

<b) 

=    10 

3 

0 

zz:    22 

+- 

z=    12 

0 

zz:     4 

zz:    16 

z=     2 

=     20 

V 

Figure  21.     Cardboard  charts  to  be  hung  on  the  blackboard. 

Addition  tables  may  be  learned  rapidly  by  using  flash 
cards.  Those  at  the  bottom  of  the  cut  may  be  used  for 
any  of  the  drills  in  the  fundamentals.  Those  at  the  top  are 
for  practice  in  rapid  addition.  Notice  the  groups  of  ten. 
See  Figure  22. 

"Chickens"  is  played  by  scattering  a  handful  or  corn 
about  the  floor.  The  children  hurry  to  see  who  can  get  the 
most.  They  then  count  the  number  secured,  and  report. 

The  fundamental  tables  and  drills  may  be  made  inter- 
esting by  various  devices.  For  example,  choose  sides,  and 


SEAT  WORK  AND  SPECIAL  DEVICES 


201 


6 


7 


7 


8 


put  12  on  the  board. 
The  leader  gives  one 
number,  and  the  other 
side  gives  the  other  num- 
ber that  will  make  12. 
Educational  papers 
and  magazines  will  sup- 
ply numbers  and  devices 
and  should  be  read  by 
all  teachers.  The  brief 
suggestions  given  in  this 
chapter  will  help  the  in- 
experienced teacher,  but 
the  progressive  teacher 
will  be  original  and  make 
up  new  devices  each 
year.  It  is  well  to  re- 
member all  devices  are  merely  temporary  aids  to  the  child 
to  be  used  as  a  crutch  and  thrown  away  when  no  longer 
needed. 


3 

8 

6 

2 

Fig.  22.     Addition  tables  to  be  printed  on  tag 
strips  and  used  as  flash  cards. 


CHAPTER  XVI 
THE  TREND  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

Twenty-five  years  ago  the  subjects  now  known  under 
the  head  of  industrial  education  were  hardly  thought  of  as 
part  of  the  course  of  study  for  any  schools,  not  to  mention 
those  of  the  country.  Until  very  recently  but  little  pro- 
gress had  been  made  except  in  the  larger  centers.  That 
the  school  should  actually  become  a  live  institution  and 
do  things  as  they  are  done  in  the  home,  on  the  farm,  or  in 
the  shop,  is  a  very  new  idea.  It  has  come  about  on  account 
of  the  discussions  at  teachers'  conventions,  bankers'  asso- 
ciations, and  other  business  men's  organizations.  Women's 
clubs  and  conventions  have  favored  industrial  education  in 
the  schools,  on  account  of  the  direct  influence  of  this  work 
on  the  future  welfare  of  the  individual. 

The  stamp  of  culture  and  refinement  is  no  longer  placed 
upon  only  those  who  wear  white  collars  or  silk  dresses. 
Neither  are  we  looking  for  the  former  Bostonian  kind  to 
mutilate  the  language.  The  young  man  from  college  who 
stands  around  in  his  patent  leather  shoes  and  up-turned 
trousers,  with  the  latest  bow  on  the  hat  stuck  on  one  side 
of  his  enlarged  head,  telling  what  he  has  done  in  athletics, 
while  his  father  milks  the  cows  and  hoes  the  garden,  should 
consult  his  Latin  "pony"  for  the  derivation  of  the  word 
"culture."  The  young  woman  who  is  content  to  play  the 
piano  and  receive  "guests,"  while  her  mother  scrubs  the 
floors  and  does  the  mending,  need  not  expect  a  real  man 
ever  to  become  interested  in  her.  Not  that  culture  means 
drudgery;  for  it  is  just  the  opposite,  but  it  does  mean  work. 
Modern  society  has  no  place  for  the  human  parasite.  The 
young  home-maker  may  be  fortunate  enough  to  have  what 

202 


TREND  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION  203 

help  she  needs  for  the  ordinary  house  work;  but,  in  order  to 
direct  this  work  intelligently,  she  must  know  how  to  do  it 
herself.  Such  knowledge  cannot  be  obtained  from  books 
alone.  The  great  "captains  of  industry"  realize  this  truth, 
when  they  train  those  who  are  to  manage  units  of  their 
business  by  requiring  them  to  "come  up  through  the  ranks." 
Even  European  monarchs  have  the  same  principle  of  "learn 
to  do  by  doing"  in  mind,  when  they  compel  those  who  are 
to  succeed  them  to  serve  in  the  ranks  with  ordinary  sol- 
diers and  sailors,  and,  in  some  cases,  to  work  in  the  industries. 

During  the  last  few  years  the  movement  for  in- 
dustrial education  in  the  public  schools  has  gained  such 
momentum  that  any  progressive  school  must  now  satisfy 
the  intellectual  appetite  of  its  students  with  manual  train- 
ing, domestic  economy,  or  agriculture,  as  part  of  their 
mental  food.  These  subjects  are  not  only  permeating  the 
higher  institutions  and  secondary  schools,  but  fast  gaining 
ground  even  in  the  rural  communities.  Educators  of  the 
old  school  are  fearful  of  the  outcome  of  such  a  movement 
and  bewail  the  loss  of  culture  displaced  by  commercialism. 
Even  the  most  ardent  supporters  of  the  movement  are 
mindful  that  the  educational  pendulum  sometimes  swings 
too  far,  and  are  willing  to  pause  for  a  readjustment.  But 
the  sooner  we  have  passed  entirely  through  the  "fad" 
stage  the  quicker  we  shall  reach  a  sound,  working  basis; 
for  practically  all  are  agreed  that  industrial  education  must 
become  a  fundamental  part  of  the  course  of  study  of  our 
public  schools.  Our  entire  educational  system  is  gradually, 
but  surely,  undergoing  a  change  with  this  end  in  view. 

A  few  years  ago,  while  preparing  a  paper  on  "Is  the 
Utilitarian  Idea  in  Education  Being  Carried  Too  Far?" 
the  author  sent  out  a  questionaire  to  a  large  number  of 
persons  representing  all  classes  of  society — professional  men, 


204  RURAL  EDUCATION 

business  men,  farmers  and  persons  retired.  The  questions 
had  special  reference  to  the  establishment  of  industrial 
courses  in  existing  high  schools,  as  teaching  this  work  in 
the  rural  schools  had  not  then  been  advocated  in  many 
communities.  The  answers  received  were  extremely  in- 
teresting in  that  they  showed  the  general  public  to  be  alive 
to  the  educational  questions  of  the  day  and  to  have  an 
intelligent  understanding  of  the  needs  of  this  class  of 
schools.  Among  other  things  I  found  the  following  facts: 
That  52%  of  the  school  patrons,  as  far  as  the  answers 
could  be  relied  upon  to  reflect  their  views,  regarded  the 
industrial  course  more  important  than  the  academic  course; 
that  80%  favored  both  courses  in  every  state  high  school; 
that,  if  only  one  course  could  be  offered  in  smaller  high 
schools,  55%  preferred  that  it  should  be  the  industrial  rather 
than  the  academic  course;  that  84%  of  those  answering 
believed  that  high  schools  offering  both  courses  should 
receive  additional  state  aid.  It  is  only  fair  to  state  that 
since  these  questions  were  sent  out,  the  Putnam  Act  has 
been  passed  in  Minnesota,  giving  state  aid  for  industrial 
departments,  and  that  most  of  the  high  schools  of  the  state 
now  offer  industrial  courses.  The  answers  would  be  still 
more  favorable,  if  similar  questions  were  asked  at  this  time. 
In  the  rural  communities  consolidation  and  association 
of  schools  will  be  the  greatest  factor  in  bringing  about  the 
change  so  much  needed  in  the  courses  of  study.  Much  is 
already  being  done  in  some  of  the  single-roomed  buildings, 
due,  largely,  to  an  energetic  and  enlightened  teacher.  A 
little  foresight  on  the  part  of  those  planning  a  country 
school  building  would  materially  facilitate  the  work  to 
be  done.  A  semi-graded  school  of  two  rooms  isv  capable 
of  special  improvement.  By  putting  a  basement  under 
such  a  building  at  a  slight  additional  cost  not  only  could  a 


TREND  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION  205 

heating  plant  be  installed,  but  ample  accommodations  could 
be  provided  for  the  industrial  work.  The  two  teachers, 
preferably  a  man  for  the  one  room,  could  offer  manual 
training  and  agriculture  for  the  boys,  and  a  woman,  for 
the  other,  could  teach  cooking  and  sewing  to  the  girls. 
The  work  could  be  given  as  often  as  local  conditions  would 
permit,  but  at  least  once  a  week  for  each  subject.  It  is 
probable  that  qualified  teachers  can  be  secured  as  rapidly 
as  the  demand  for  them  increases. 

The  public  recognizes  that  book  training  alone  is  inade- 
quate to  educate  the  child  and  is  demanding  a  more 
practical  education.  Psychologists  have  come  to  the  aid 
of  the  movement  in  declaring  that  industrial  education  is 
necessary  during  the  early  period  of  training,  say  to  fifteen 
years  of  age,  if  the  motor  centers  are  to  be  fully  developed. 

The  object  of  industrial  training  is  usually  given  as  two 
fold:  To  acquire  actual  knowledge  and  skill,  and  to  develop 
character.  Experience  has  proved  that  the  new  subjects 
are  fulfilling  their  purpose  and  increasing  the  capacity 
for  work.  ''The  hand  is  made  the  obedient  servant  of  the 
brain."  Hence,  it  is  claimed  the  new  subjects  are  entitled 
to  a  place  in  the  course  of  study  in  all  schools. 

Objection  has  been  made  that  the  schools  are  trying  to 
teach  trades,  but  arguments  of  the  objectors  will  not  stand. 
Teaching  the  constitution  in  history  does  not  make  lawyers 
of  the  students;  a  knowledge  of  interest  and  bank  discount 
does  not  necessarily  produce  a  banker;  and  a  study  of  the 
electric  telegraph  in  physics  will  not  produce  telegraph 
operators.  But  all  of  these  things  do  produce  more  en- 
lightened and  efficient  citizens.  So  it  is  with  the  industrial 
subjects. 

Vacation  schools  have  been  opened  in  many  of  the  larger 
centers  for  those  boys  and  girls  who  do  not  have  regular 


206  RURAL  EDUCATION 

work  to  do.  A  large  amount  of  the  work  done  in  these 
schools  is  industrial.  In  some  schools  the  students  are 
allowed  pay  for  part  time  or  full  time  work.  There  is  a 
minimum  and  maximum  wage  schedule,  depending  upon  the 
age  of  the  worker.  This  should  be  kept  low  enough  that 
the  sale  of  the  products  will  pay  all  operating  expenses. 
The  balance,  or  profit,  may  be  divided  among  the  workers, 
after  providing  a  sinking  fund  to  pay  for  breakage  and  re- 
pairs. A  card  system  of  accounts  must  be  kept  by  the 
students  showing  the  time  and  wages  per  hour.  This  is 
excellent  practice  for  students  and  provides  work  for  those 
who  might  otherwise  be  idle.  While  vacation  schools  are 
probably  practicable  only  in  the  larger  places,  the  idea  of 
putting  students  on  a  profit-sharing  basis  for  industrial  work 
done  can  be  carried  out  in  any  school  where  the  pupils  are 
willing  to  work  after  school  and  Saturdays.  The  school 
farm,  the  manual  training  shop,  and  the  home  economics 
department  in  the  high  school  are  examples  showing  how 
some  such  a  plan  might  be  carried  out  successfully.  Even  in 
rural  schools  of  two  or  more  rooms  the  plan  would  not  be 
impracticable,  under  the  proper  leadership. 

The  subjects  usually  considered  under  industrial  educa- 
tion are  manual  training,  domestic  economy,  and  agricul- 
ture. Manual  training  in  its  various  forms  was  the  first  to 
be  introduced  into  the  public  schools.  It  was  established 
in  Sweden,  Germany,  England,  and  other  countries  of  Europe 
sometime  before  it  appeared  in  the  schools  of  America. 

Manual  training  includes  not  only  the  wood  and  iron 
work  of  the  advanced  grades,  but  also  the  paper  cutting  and 
folding,  weaving  with  paper,  felt,  splints,  yarn  and  other 
material,  basketry,  bead  work,  clay  and  other  modeling, 
and  the  sloyd  of  the  elementary  grades.  With  a  definite 
plan  and  amount  of  work  to  be  covered  in  each  of  these 


TREND  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION  207 

divisions,  many  good  teachers  are  accomplishing  much  with 
a  small  outlay  for  supplies  and  a  few  good  elementary  refer- 
ence books.  It  is  the  unsystematic  way  in  which  some 
schools  have  pursued  this  work  that  has  been  largely  respon- 
sible for  opposition  to  it  in  some  localities  where  it  is  called 
a  "fad." 

Domestic  economy  not  only  teaches  actual  practice  in 
cooking  and  sewing,  but  the  whole  subject  of  housekeeping 
as  a  profession  is  included.  Serving,  laundering,  purchas- 
ing materials,  study  of  textiles,  dyeing,  bacteriology,  care 
of  the  sick,  and  other  similar  subjects  have  become  part  of 
this  work.  In  some  localities  classes  are  formed  for  the 
women  of  the  community  and  they  work  out  a  special  course 
offered  once  or  twice  a  week,  as  time  permits.  In  this  way 
they  derive  direct  benefit  themselves  as  well  as  keep  in 
touch  with  the  work  done  by  their  children  in  the  regular 
classes.  During  the  last  few  years  domestic  economy  has 
become  one  of  the  most  popular  subjects  in  high  schools 
and  in  the  upper  grades.  In  rural  schools  many  teachers 
are  serving  hot  lunches  at  noon,  assisted  by  the  older  girls 
of  the  school,  and  sewing  is  being  successfully  taught. 

The  work  in  agriculture  in  the  public  schools  is  more 
recent  in  America;  but,  stimulated  by  conservation  con- 
gresses and  legislation,  there  appears  to  be  a  growing  de- 
mand for  it  in  all  classes  of  schools.  The  work  usually  con- 
sists of  recitation  and  laboratory  work  in  farm  crops,  animal 
husbandry,  horticulture,  farm  accounts,  farm  management, 
sanitation,  drainage,  and  other  kindred  subjects.  This  is 
supplemented  by  demonstration  work  on  plots  of  ground 
connected  with  the  school.  These  plots  range  from  five  to 
one  hundred  and  sixty  acres,  but  probably  average  about 
ten  acres .  In  many  places  the  success  of  these  plots  has 
been  phenomenal.  In  others  they  have  been  total  failures. 


208 


RURAL  EDUCATION 


TREND  OF  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION  209 

The  result  depends  largely  upon  the  person  in  charge.  It 
takes  tact,  perseverance,  and  plenty  of  " elbow  grease"  to 
make  the  school  plot  successful.  Some  farmers  are  more 
critical  than  they  should  be; others  are  sympathetic, apprecia- 
tive, and  willing  to  co-operate  with  the  school.  Seeds  are 
sometimes  distributed  for  home  gardens  under  the  direction 
of  the  school.  Local  and  state  contests  stimulate  interest 
in  the  home  project  work.  In  many  sections  farmers  of  the 
community  set  aside  plots  on  which  to  test  fertilizers  and 
different  crops. 

The  splendid  work  being  done  by  the  industrial  depart- 
ments of  the  schools  in  Minnesota  and  other  states  the  last 
few  years  has  given  impetus  to  this  movement.  There  is 
a  general  feeling  that  the  liberal  aid  given  these  departments 
is  money  spent  in  the  right  direction,  and  that  legislatures 
should  provide  for  better  rural  schools.  It  is  this  class  of 
schools  more  than  any  other  that  should  now  claim  the 
attention  of  state  and  national  governments. 

This  is  an  age  of  conservation.  The  great  conserva- 
tion congress  held  at  St.  Paul  a  few  years  ago  was  a  land- 
mark in  this  new  movement.  But,  to  my  mind,  the  great- 
est problem  before  us  to-day  is  the  conservation  of  the  boys 
and  the  girls  of  the  state  for  the  rural  community.  It 
cannot  afford  to  lose  so  many  of  its  brightest  young  men 
and  women.  One  of  the  best  ways  to  keep  them  is  to 
interest  them  in  their  environment  by  teaching  them 
more  subjects  they  can  use  and  fewer  that  have  no  practi- 
cal bearing  on  daily  life. 


14 


CHAPTER  XVII 
GENERAL  INDUSTRIAL  WORK 

Industrial  work  and  vocational  work  are  sometimes  con- 
fused. They  are  not  synonymous  terms.  Industrial  educa- 
tion is  the  study  of  the  work  of  the  industries,  and  is  usually 
taught  through  hand  work  representing  some  of  the  manu- 
factured products  of  these  industries.  It  is  work  that  has 
just  as  much  a  place  in  fundamental  education  as  elementary 
history  or  geography,  and  should  be  grouped  under  the 
general  head  of  "industry."  Vocational  work  is  that  which 
is  offered  on  account  of  its  direct  value  to  the  individual  in 
preparing  him  for  his  life  work.  Such  education  is  offered 
in  trade  schools,  normal  schools,  and  other  technical  schools. 
Only  occasionally  is  true  vocational  work  offered  in  the  high 
schools.  Undoubtedly  more  of  it  should  be  given  in  these 
schools.  In  so  far  as  home  economics  is  made  practical, 
and  really  prepares  those  taking  the  course  to  become  home- 
makers,  it  is  vocational.  The  teacher's  training  depart- 
ments, and  the  agricultural  departments  are,  to  some  extent, 
vocational  also. 

Education  is  largely  traditional.  It  is  only  natural  that 
industrial  and  vocational  education  should  have  to  struggle 
for  recognition.  Ancient  philosophy  could  not  harmonize 
culture  and  industry.  Culture,  to  the  Greek,  meant  war 
and  poetry.  The  Roman  saw  in  culture,  law  and  politics. 
During  the  Dark  Ages  there  was  no  culture.  The  Renais- 
sance revived  it  only  by  a  study  of  the  ancient  classics — 
Greek  and  Roman.  The  Reformation  recognized  it  in 
religion.  Only  within  the  last  half  century,  after  a  desper- 
ate struggle  with  the  humanities,  has  science  come  within 
the  sacred  portals  of  cultural  education.  It  remains  for  the 

210 


GENERAL  INDUSTRIAL  WORK  211 

present  generation  to  see  in  industry  culture  as  well  as  voca- 
tion. America  is  beginning  to  learn  that  the  old  idea  of 
culture  is  not  true  to  our  principles  of  democracy,  and  that 
it  is  entirely  out  of  place  in  a  great  industrial  nation.  Many 
of  the  best  minds  are  drawn  from  the  professions  into  the 
industries,  where  the  larger  salaries  are  attractive.  Ignor- 
ance of  the  industrial  conditions  of  the  country  among  so- 
called  educated  people  is  often  ridiculous. 

The  need  of  industrial  education  in  the  elementary 
schools,  including  the  rural  schools,  is  well  stated  by  Cole 
in  his  "Industrial  Education  in  the  Elementary  School". 
He  says:  "The  purpose  of  the  elementary  school  is  to  give 
such  knowledge,  feeling,  and  power  as  all  citizens  should 
possess.  As  far  as  it  neglects  industry,  the  school  falls 
short  of  its  purpose.  Industry  is  among  the  departments 
of  civilization  about  which  everybody  should  know  some- 
thing. Further  social  sympathy  should  be  cultivated  in  all 
citizens,  and  social  sympathy  cannot  be  developed  until 
all  the  world  knows  what  most  of  the  people  do.  Social 
efficiency,  too,  depends  upon  knowledge;  for  without  some 
acquaintance  with  industrial  affairs  even  those  who  are 
engaged  in  other  pursuits  are  handicapped.  They  can- 
not intelligently  co-operate  with  work  which  they  know 
nothing  about.  The  modern  view  of  industry,  as  a  stim- 
ulus to  culture,  a  condition  of  higher  standards  of  living, 
and  a  source  of  ideals,  implies  that  it  should  no  longer 
be  neglected  even  in  part  by  the  elementary  school." 

Industrial  training  in  the  elementary  schools  has  been 
too  much  of  the  "hit  and  miss"  kind.  There  has  been  no 
standard  course  of  study — in  fact,  few  standardized  courses 
of  any  kind — and  the  resourceful  teacher  has  given  such 
instruction  in  industrial  work  as  she  could  with  the  train- 
ing she  happened  to  have.  The  two  extremes  could  only 


212  RURAL  EDUCATION 

be  expected  under  such  circumstances — talking  about 
industrial  work  without  doing  it,  and  making  certain  unre- 
lated articles  without  instruction.  Definite  instruction 
should  precede  or  accompany  the  industrial  work.  For 
example,  when  rugs  are  made  from  yarn,  jute,  or  raffia, 
the  students  should  be  instructed  as  to  where  these  ma- 
terials are  prepared  and  what  uses  they  have  in  the  indus- 
tries. The  same  kind  of  instruction  should  be  given  for 
rattan  and  other  materials.  Some  of  this  instruction  can 
be  correlated  with  oral  and  written  language. 

The  general  industrial  work  should  be  given  throughout 
the  entire  elementary  course;  but,  as  the  work  for  the  last 
part  of  this  period  is  divided  for  the  boys  and  the  girls,  the 
suggestions  here  given  will  apply  particularly  to  the  pupils 
of  the  First  or  Primary  Division.  Basketry  and  rope  work 
may  be  given  to  the  intermediate  and  advanced  students 
to  supplement  their  work  in  manual  training  and  sewing. 
No  attempt  is  made  to  classify  the  work  in  the  order  of 
taking  it  up,  as  that  is  best  left  to  the  discretion  of  the 
teacher;  but  it  is  well  to  begin  with  the  simple  forms  of 
weaving  and  modeling  before  attempting  basketry  and 
other  more  difficult  problems.  The  work  should  be  varied 
as  much  as  possible.  Appropriate  changes  will  suggest 
themselves  for  such  special  occasions  as  Thanksgiving, 
Christmas,  birthdays,  Valentine  Day,  Easter,  May  Day,  etc. 

The  time  given  to  industrial  work  must  depend  upon 
circumstances.  Some  schools  can  give  more  time  to  it  than 
others.  Part  of  the  time  for  the  seat  work  should  be  devoted 
to  industrial  work  for  the  primary  division.  All  the  pro- 
grams suggested  in  Chapter  VIII  provide  for  this  work 
during  the  general  period  in  the  afternoon  twice  a  week. 
The  First  Division  pupils  may  remain  during  these  two 
periods  instead  of  being  dismissed,  if  there  is  not  sufficient 


GENERAL  INDUSTRIAL  WORK  213 

time  otherwise.  The  work  is  so  interesting  to  the  average 
student  that  the  teacher  can  conduct  several  branches  of 
industrial  work  at  the  same  time  and  keep  all  pupils 
busy  after  they  are  once  started  on  a  project. 

The  supplies  needed  will  naturally  depend  upon  the 
size  of  the  school  and  the  time  given  to  industrial  work. 
From  five  to  fifteen  dollars'  worth  will  be  enough  for  the 
general  industrial  work.  The  manual  training  and  sewing 
materials  of  the  advanced  division  should  be  paid  for  by 
the  students.  A  suggestive  list  of  materials  and  prices  are 
given.  They  may  be  purchased  from  any  general  school 
supply  house.  For  the  First  Division  paper  weaving  ma- 
terials are  needed.  These  may  be  purchased  in  packages 
in  various  sizes,  with  slits  one  fourth,  one  third,  and  one 
half  inch  wide,  at  about  a  cent  for  each  mat.  All  the  stand- 
ard colors  may  be  obtained.  Colored  sheets  should  be  pur- 
chased and  strips  cut  with  the  scissors  for  more  advanced 
weaving  after  the  ready-made  mats  have  been  put  together. 
Papers  for  folding  and  cutting  may  be  purchased  at  fifteen 
to  twenty  cents  a  hundred  squares,  usually  four  by  four 
inches,  in  colors.  Looms  may  be  made  or  purchased. 
Hammock  looms  are  easily  made  by  cutting  heavy  card- 
board to  the  desired  size,  rounding  the  ends,  and  cutting 
notches  in  them  for  the  fastening  of  the  warp.  These 
are  very  inexpensive  and  are  just  as  good  as  those  that 
are  purchased.  Looms  for  rug  weaving  may  easily  .be 
made  in  the  school,  if  the  students  have  manual  training. 
All  our  schools  in  the  associated  districts  have  been  sup- 
plied. A  loom  that  costs  thirty  cents  may  be  made  for 
from  three  to  six  cents  for  the  material.  We  made  ours 
of  oak  one  fourth  of  an  inch  thick.  Pine  or  basswood 
will  do.  The  two  end  pieces  are  each  ten  inches  long  and 
one  and  one  fourth  inches  wide.  Notches  are  made  by  put- 


214  RURAL  EDUCATION 

ting  the  two  ends  together  and  sawing  to  a  depth  of  one 
quarter  inch,  and  one  fourth  of  an  inch  apart.  In  these 
the  warp  is  fastened  for  weaving.  The  ends  are  fastened 
together  with  two  pieces  twelve  inches  long  and  three  quarters 
of  an  inch  wide.  These  are  fastened  by  sawing  a  slit  in  the 
ends  of  the  end  pieces,  so  that  the  side  piece  will  just  fit 
flat-wise.  They  are  then  nailed  and  glued.  Holes  are 
bored  in  the  ends  for  the  heavy  wire  to  make  the  loop  ad- 
justable in  width.  These  wires  are  copper,  three  sixteenths 
of  an  inch  in  diameter,  and  may  be  bought  at  any  hard- 
ware store.  They  should  be  cut  fourteen  inches  long  and 
have  a  loop  made  in  one  end  for  a  handle.  A  wooden  cross- 
piece  similar  to  one  of  the  ends  may  be  made  to  slide  along 
the  side  pieces.  This  will  enable  one  to  make  the  loom 
adjustable  in  length  as  well  as  in  width.  Flat  wooden 
needles  made  from  quarter-inch  basswood,  rounded  off  at 
one  end,  and  a  hole  bored  in  the  other  for  threading 
the  material,  can  be  made  very  easily,  and  they  are  bet- 
ter than  the  metal  needles  for  the  most  of  the  weaving. 
These  should  be  sandpapered  down  until  they  are  a  little 
less  than  one  eighth  of  an  inch  thick,  a  half  inch  wide,  and 
about  ten  inches  long.  With  such  a  needle^  the  material 
may  be  drawn  through  the  entire  width  of  the  rug  at  one 
time.  Metal  needles  are  needed  for  finishing  the  rugs  and 
for  working  in  patterns.  See  Figure  29. 

Rug  materials  are  few  or  numerous  as  one  desires.  Col- 
ored rags  from  home  are  as  good  as  anything  for  the  practice 
work  and  cost  nothing.  They  should  be  cut  or  torn  into 
suitable  lengths  and  widths.  Roving  is  a  very  coarse 
weaving  material,  excellent  for  beginners,  and  may  be 
purchased  in  colors  at  about  seventy  cents  a  pound.  It 
should  precede  the  finer  materials.  Carpet  yarn  may  be 
obtained  at  about  sixty  cents  a  pound.  Jute  makes  cheaper 


GENERAL  INDUSTRIAL  WORK  215 

weaving  material  at  from  twenty-five  to  thirty  cents  a 
pound.  Chenille,  plain  and  mottled,  is  good  for  pattern 
work,  or  for  the  entire  rug.  It  costs  about  sixty  cents  a 
pound.  Macrame  cord  comes  in  balls,  any  color,  and  costs 
about  fifteen  cents  a  ball.  It  is  used  principally  for  ham- 
mock making,  but  is  rather  expensive.  For  practice,  rugs 
may  be  made  out  of  rags,  raffia,  or  even  corn  husks,  and 
save  the  expensive  materials  for  exhibit  work.  All  these 
materials  are  used  for  the  woof  of  rugs  and  hammocks. 
For  the  warp  to  " thread"  the  looms,  carpet  warp  may  be 
purchased  in  colors  at  about  fifty  cents  a  pound.  Brass 
rings  for  hammocks  will  cost  about  two  cents  a  pair  for  the 
inch  size.  Smaller  ones  may  be  used,  if  desired.  German- 
town  yarn  is  beautiful  for  knitting  caps,  bonnets,  mittens, 
leggings,  etc.,  but  is  rather  expensive  for  rugs.  It  costs 
about  fifteen  cents  a  skein. 

Basketry  and  raffia  supplies  may  be  furnished  by  the 
school  or  purchased  by  the  students,  as  desired.  Plain 
raffia  costs  from  fifteen  to  eighteen  cents  a  pound,  and 
colored  from  forty  to  fifty  cents.  Rattan,  or  round  reeds, 
will  cost  from  thirty-five  to  eighty-five  cents,  depending 
upon  the  size.  The  medium  sizes  are  used  most,  but  the 
teacher  should  order  by  sending  samples  of  the  sizes  de- 
sired. Flat  reed  for  napkin  rings  and  basketry  costs  about 
fifty  cents  a  pound.  Raffia  and  rattan  may  be  dyed,  if 
desired;  but  it  is  rather  hard  to  get  uniform  tints  unless 
one  has  had  practice.  The  finished  baskets  and  trays 
should  be  shellacked  as  soon  as  they  are  made. 

Clay  for  modeling  comes  in  three  forms — the  flour,  in 
bricks,  and  moist  in  barrels.  The  flour  may  be  obtained 
in  five-pound  boxes  at  five  cents  a  pound.  The  bricks  are 
usually  five  pounds  each  and  cost  the  same  as  the  flour. 
Moist  clay  is  a  little  cheaper  when  purchased  in  barrel 


216  RURAL  EDUCATION 

lots.     Some  communities  have  near  at  hand  clay  that  is 
good  for  this  work,  and  costs  only  the  labor  of  getting  it. 

SUGGESTIVE  COURSE,  INDUSTRIAL  WORK 
FIRST  DIVISION,  (1—3  YEARS.) 

The  industrial  work  of  this  division  will  naturally  come 
under  several  heads.  I  would  suggest  the  following:  Agri- 
culture, paper  folding  and  construction,  weaving,  raffia  and 
rattan  work,  and  modeling. 

The  agricultural  work  is  necessarily  simple,  but  it  is, 
nevertheless,  interesting  and  useful.  It  is  discussed  in 
detail  in  Chapter  XXI. 

Paper  folding  and  construction  may  precede  or  follow 
the  paper  weaving.  A  ruler,  pencil,  pair  of  scissors,  and 
paste  are  needed.  Make  envelopes  and  boxes  for  seed  and 
other  collections  in  agriculture.  Other  objects  from  which 
a  selection  may  be  made  are  as  follows:  Small  basket, 
doll's  furniture,  sled,  Indian  canoe,  Puritan  cradle,  shaving 
ball  or  pad,  needlebook,  match  scratcher,  Christmas  bells, 
windmill,  May  basket,  carriage,  house,  barn,  chicken-coop, 
picture-frame,  bookmark,  fan,  Chinese  lantern,  circular 
marker,  hexagonal  box,  blotting-pad,  calendar,  valentine, 
button  box,  tent,  card  and  photograph  holders,  screen, 
flower  holder,  whisk-broom  holder  and  pocket  comb  holder. 
The  materials  for  these  are  common  manila  drawing  paper, 
oak  tag,  cover  paper  and  colored  construction  papers. 

Weaving  is  usually  begun  with  paper  strips  and  ready- 
made  mats  are  given  under  materials  for  industrial  work. 
Paper  weaving  may  be  followed  by  basket  weaving  with 
heavy  folding  paper,  bookmark  weaving,  pencil  tray, 
mats,  boxes,  napkin  rings,  match  safe,  pincushion,  blotter, 
calendar  and  thermometer  backs.  After  the  paper  weav- 
ing, loom  work  should  be  given.  Rugs  of  rags,  roving, 


GENERAL  INDUSTRIAL  WORK 


217 


yarn,  jute,  chenille,  raffia 
and  other  materials  are 
made.  Bed  blankets  and 
draperies  for  a  doll's  house 
may  be  woven.  Ham- 
mocks, made  of  macrame 
cord  on  homemade  card- 
board looms,  may  be  hung 
outside  the  doll  house. 
Doll  caps,  mittens,  and 
leggings  may  be  made  of 
Germantown  yarn  on  the 
loom  and  sewed  to  shape. 
See  Figure  24. 

Raffia  and  rattan  work 
should  largely  be  done  in 
the  intermediate  and  advanced  divisions.  Raffia  rugs,  napkin 
rings,  picture  frames  of  cardboard  wound  in  raffia,  and 
raffia  baskets  may  be  attempted  in  the  primary  division. 


Fig.  24.    Germantown  yarn  work  of  First  Di- 
vision, showing  caps,  sweaters  and  leggings. 


Figure  25. 


Making  rattan  trays  and  baskets  on  the  school  grounds. 
No  truants  in  this  school. 


218  RURAL  EDUCATION 

Modeling  is  always  of  interest  and  its  educational  value 
is  evident.  A  piece  of  oil  cloth,  or  a  square  board,  should 
protect  the  desk.  When  clay  is  used  it  should  be  prepared 
the  day  before.  The  children,  of  course,  must  be  able  to 
wash  their  hands  after  the  work.  Encourage  outside  work 
and  ask  the  children  to  bring  their  products  to  school  to 
show  the  others.  Modeling  is  especially  valuable  in  train- 
ing both  hands  at  the  same  time.  Begin  with  forms  from 
life,  as  animals  and  plants,  rather  than  the  geometrical 
forms.  Later  these  should  be  given,  and  the  ball,  apple, 
peach,  pear,  orange,  banana,  and  other  similar  objects  model- 
ed. A  bird's  nest  and  eggs,  marbles,  clay  baskets,  beads 
and  ornamental  vases,  are  some  of  the  popular  pieces.  It  is 
well  to  have  in  mind  the  following  general  divisions  of  the 
subject:  1.  Modeling  from  objects  present  at  the  time. 
2.  Modeling  from  memory.  3.  Modeling  from  imagina- 
tion. 4.  Design  in  modeling.  Fruit  modeling  may  be 
shaded  with  water  colors  and,  when  dry,  given  a  coat  of 
shellac  which  gives  a  very  natural  effect,  if  well  done. 
Other  objects  may  be  colored  in  a  similar  manner. 

SECOND  AND  THIRD  DIVISION  WORK 

The  general  industrial  work  of  these  divisions  should  be 
raffia  and  rattan  weaving,  basketry,  bead  work,  if  desired, 
and  rope  work.  The  objects  made  may  be  varied.  If 
manual  training  and  sewing  are  given  in  these  divisions,  as 
they  should  be,  there  will  not  be  much  time  left.  A  little 
basketry,  however,  and  rope  work  should  be  given  some- 
time during  the  course.  Napkin  rings  of  rattan  and  flat 
reed,  baskets  of  raffia  and  rattan,  collar  boxes  of  rattan 
wound  and  fastened  with  raffia,  serving  trays  of  rattan  and 
a  wooden  bottom,  waste  baskets  of  heavy  rattan,  and 
knots  and  splices  in  rope  work,  are  all  useful  and  practical 


GENERAL  INDUSTRIAL  WORK  219 

lessons.  The  rattan  work  should  be  given  a  coat  of  shellac 
as  soon  as  finished.  It  may  be  finished  in  colors  or  natural. 

Reference  books  are  necessary  for  the  best  results  in 
industrial  work.  It  is  impossible  to  give  directions  for 
making  many  of  the  articles  suggested  here,  as  space  will 
not  permit.  The  author  has  found  the  following  list  of 
books  almost  indispensable:  Paper  Sloyd  for  Primary 
Grades,  by  Rich;  Industrial  Work  for  Public  Schools,  by 
Holton  and  Rollins;  Hand-Loom  Weaving  by  Todd;  Card- 
board Construction,  by  Tryborn;  Hand  Work,  by  Hoxie; 
Raffia  and  Reed  Weaving,  by  Knapp;  Clay  Modeling,  by 
Holland;  and  How  to  Make  Baskets,  by  White.  Bulletins 
on  rope  work  may  be  obtained  free  from  many  of  the  agri- 
cultural colleges. 

Industrial  work  and  geography  should  be  correlated  to 
the  extent  that  the  students  should  know  where  all  the 
materials  used  come  from  and  how  they  are  used  in  the 
industries.  Raffia  is  a  light  yellow  material  that  is  shred- 
ded off  from  the  bark  of  a  certain  palm  tree.  Most  of  ours 
comes  from  the  island  of  Madagascar.  On  account  of  its 
pliability  and  toughness,  raffia  is  much  used  for  industrial 
work,  and  also  for  rope  making  in  the  industries.  Rattan 
is  a  kind  of  a  palm  that  grows  in  the  East  Indies.  It  is 
peculiar  in  that  it  sometimes  reaches  one  thousand  feet 
in  length,  and  is  supported  by  neighboring  trees.  It  grows 
in  various  sizes,  but  is  seldom  more  than  an  inch  in  dia- 
meter. There  are  very  few  branches,  sometimes  none  for 
two  or  three  hundred  feet.  The  different  species  are  very 
useful  in  their  native  countries  for  plaited  work,  rope  mak- 
ing, etc.  Rattan  is  twisted  into  ropes  and  used  for  pur- 
poses requiring  great  strength.  In  this  country  it  is  used 
for  basketry,  rustic  furniture  making,  etc.  Jute  is  made 
from  the  inner  bark  of  a  tall  annual  plant  native  to  the 


220 


RURAL  EDUCATION 


East  Indies,  but  now  grown  in  several  countries  for  com- 
mercial purposes.  The  fiber  is  used  for  carpet  making, 
canvas  and  rope. 

Directions  for  making  a  few  forms  of  industrial  work  are 
given  for  those  who  have  no  other  books,  but  as  many 
reference  books  on  industrial  work  as  the  school  can  afford 
should  be  in  the  library. 

1 — Single  Paper  Weaving 

Materials:  Manila  drawing  paper  for  practice.  Later, 
use  colored  papers  for  a  variety. 

Directions:  Use  a  square  of  any  desired  size  from  four 
to  eight  inches.  Fold  the  bottom  over  to  the  top.  With 


Figure  26.     Paper  weaving  in  First  Division.     Note  different  designs. 

a  ruler  and  pencil  make  lines  one  half  inch  apart  beginning 
one  inch  from  the  left  side,  and  ending  one  inch  from  the  right 
side.  The  lines  should  run  to  the  folded  edge  of  the  paper, 
but  end  just  one  inch  from  the  upper  edge.  With  the  scis- 
sors cut  along  the  lines.  Open  the  paper.  You  will  have 
it  cut  into  slits  one  half  inch  apart.  Cut  another  piece  of 
paper  into  strips  one  half  inch  wide  and  as  long  as  the 
square  just  used.  Weave  the  first  strip  over  one  and  under 
the  next  strip  in  the  square.  Weave  the  second  strip  in  the 
same  way  except  that  you  weave  under  where  you  wove 


GENERAL  INDUSTRIAL  WORK  221 

over  in  the  first  strip.  Continue  until  all  the  strips  are 
woven.  Other  weaving  may  be  done,  using  strips  of  any 
desired  width  and  color,  and  working  out  various  designs 
in  the  square.  As  stated  elsewhere,  these  squares  may  be 
purchased  all  ready  for  weaving,  if  desired ;  but  it  is  cheaper 
to  make  your  own,  and  the  practice  in  ruling  and  cutting 
is  also  desirable.  See  Figure  26. 

2— Paper  Box 

Materials:  Drawing  paper,  ruler  and  pencil,  scissors, 
and  paste. 

Directions :  Draw  on  a  piece  of  paper  a  square  j  ust  double 
the  size  you  want  your  box  to  be.  Fold  over  the  lower  edge 
on  the  upper,  then  the  lower  edge  on  the  crease,  then  the 
upper  edge  on  the  middle  crease.  Turn  the  paper  half 
around  and  do  the  same.  You  will  now  have  sixteen  squares. 
With  the  scissors  cut  the  lower  edge  of  the  two  top  squares 
and  the  upper  edge  of  the  two  bottom  squares.  Fold,  so 
that  the  four  middle  squares  form  the  bottom  of  the  box. 
Paste  the  corner  squares  on  the  inside  of  the  box.  Another 
box  may  be  made  in  the  same  manner  and  used  as  a  cover. 
Heavier  paper  may  be  used  for  boxes  to  store  seeds  and 
other  agricultural  products. 

3 — Paper  Basket 

Materials:     The  same  as  for  the  paper  box. 

Directions :  If  a  square  basket  is  desired,  it  may  be 
made  the  same  as  the  box.  Then  paste  the  handle  to  it, 
letting  the  ends  extend  on  the  inside  of  the  basket.  A 
better  form  is  an  oblong  about  six  by  eight  inches.  Rule 
and  cut  a  paper  this  size,  being  careful  to  get  it  exact.  Fold 
it  into  two-inch  squares,  as  directed  for  the  box.  Turn 
the  paper  with  the  long  side  up  and  down.  Cut  the  two  sides 
of  the  upper  middle  square.  Do  the  same  for  the  lower 


222  RURAL  EDUCATION 

middle  square.  Fold  the  corner  squares  over  the  middle 
squares  and  paste.  Cut  the  handle  and  paste  on  the  inside 
in  the  middle  of  the  basket.  After  practicing  with  drawing 
paper,  heavier  material  may  be  used  for  more  permanent 
baskets.  Two  colors  may  be  used,  if  desired. 
4— Paper  Table 

Materials:     Heavy  folding  paper,  scissors,  and  paste. 

Directions:  Cut  a  square  twice  the  dimensions  desired 
for  the  table.  Fold  it  into  sixteen  squares,  as  directed  in 
making  the  box.  Cut  along  the  bottom  of  the  two  upper 
corner  squares  and  along  the  top  of  the  lower  corner  squares. 
Fold  the  ends  over  the  corner  squares  and  paste  securely. 
The  bottom  of  the  box  just  made  is  the  top  of  the  table. 
Cut  out  an  oblong  from  each  side  beginning  one  half  inch 
from  the  corners,  making  it  about  three  inches  long.  This 

forms  the  legs. 

6— Paper  Chair 

Materials:     Same  as  for  the  table. 

Directions:  Cut  a  square  having  about  three  fourths 
as  many  inches  on  a  side  as  you  used  for  the  table.  Fold 
this  into  nine  squares,  as  directed  in  the  first  numbers.  Cut 
along  the  top  of  the  lower  corner  squares.  Cut  along  both 
sides  of  the  upper  middle  square.  Fold  the  upper  middle 
square  toward  you.  This  forms  the  back.  Now  fold 
one  of  the  upper  corner  squares  over  the  other  and  fold 
the  rest  of  the  squares  to  form  a  cube.  Paste  securely. 
Strengthen  the  back  by  pasting  a  paper  of  the  same  size 
over  it.  At  the  bottom  cut  out  oblongs  from  each  side 
to  form  the  legs,  as  directed  for  the  table.  The  back  may 
be  ornamented  or  left  square. 

6 — Paper  Lantern 

Materials:  Plain  or  colored  folding  paper,  black  paper, 
scissors,  and  paste. 


GENERAL  INDUSTRIAL  WORK  223 

Directions:  Paste  half-inch  bands  of  dark  or  black 
paper  across  the  top  and  bottom  of  a  six  inch  square  of  col- 
ored paper  or  paper  tinted  with  water  colors.  Wall  paper 
makes  pretty  lanterns.  Fold  the  bottom  over  on  the  top 
edge.  Cut  half  inch  slits  from  the  crease  to  the  black  paper. 
Form  circles  with  the  black  edges,  making  the  top  and  bot- 
tom of  the  lantern.  Paste  securely.  Cut  the  handle  of  the 
same  material  as  the  circular  strips,  making  it  the  same 
width  and  six  inches  long.  Paste  it  to  the  lantern,  and  hang 
where  the  lantern  will  show  to  advantage.  A  cardboard  bot- 
tom may  be  inserted,  and  a  small  candle  fastened  to  it. 

7— A  Jack  O'  Lantern 

Materials:  Drawing  paper  and  yellow  construction 
paper,  or  tinted  drawing  paper. 

'  Directions:  Draw  an  oval  the  shape  of  a  pumpkin 
about  three  by  three  and  one  half  inches,  leaving  a  short 
stem  at  the  top.  Cut  out.  With  this,  trace  another  on 
yellow  or  tinted  paper.  Cut  this  out.  Then  cut  holes  for 
the  eyes,  nose,  and  mouth,  and  paste  the  colored  paper  over 
the  other.  Black  disks  of  paper  may  be  pasted  on  the  pu- 
pils of  the  eyes,  and  triangles  for  the  teeth.  These  may 
be  used  for  invitations  or  hung  up  for  decorations. 

8 — Halloween  Fence 

Materials:  Manila  drawing  paper  and  yellow  tinted 
paper. 

Directions:  Using  a  piece  of  drawing  paper  eight  inches 
long  and  two  and  one  half  inches  wide,  cut  out  quarter-inch 
oblongs  three  and  one  half  inches  long,  leaving  a  quarter 
of  an  inch  at  each  end  to  represent  the  post.  Cut  out  five 
of  these,  leaving  four  strips  of  paper  for  the  boards.  Do 
likewise  on  the  other  half  of  the  paper.  This  will  make  three 


224  RURAL  EDUCATION 

posts  and  four  boards,  between  each, 
with  the  posts  projecting  above  and 
below.  Paste  the  fence  to  a  sheet  of 
colored  mounting  paper.  On  the  top  of 
each  post  paste  a  small  Jack  O'  Lantern 
Figure  27.  Halloween  about  one  and  a  quarter  inches  in  diam- 

fence,    paper     cutting 

and  mounting.  eter.       066  1  IgUre  27. 

9 — Christmas  Bell 

Materials:  Red  construction  paper  about  the  weight 
of  light  oak  tag,  pencil  and  scissors. 

Directions:  On  a  five  inch  square  draw  or  trace  a  bell, 
having  the  widest  part  at  the  bottom,  the  width  of  the  square. 
A  rounded  projection  in  the  middle  at  the  bottom  represents 
the  tongue,  or  clapper,  of  the  bell.  Cut  along  the  outline. 
A  small  hole  punched  in  the  top  of  the  dome  will  enable 
one  to  hang  the  bell.  It  may  be  used  to  send  an  invitation 
to  a  school  entertainment. 

10— Christmas  Stocking 

Materials:  Same  as  for  number  seven. 
Directions:  On  a  piece  of  red  construction  paper 
draw  or  trace  a  stocking  about  eight  inches  long  and  three 
inches  wide  at  the  top,  and  foot.  Cut  along  the  line.  This 
may  also  be  used  to  send  an  invitation  or  to  hang  up  for 
Christmas  decoration. 

11— Santa  Claus 

Materials:     Red  cardboard,  cotton,  and  metal  fasteners. 

Directions:  Trace  the  upper  part  of  the  body  down  as 
far  as  the  waist  line,  making  this  part  about  five  inches  from 
the  top  of  the  head  to  the  waist,  and  about  three  inches 
across  at  the  waist.  Cut  out.  Cut  the  arms  and  fasten 
with  a  brass  fastener,  one  on  each  side  of  the  body.  Cut 
out  the  lower  limbs  about  four  inches  long  and  fasten  on 


GENERAL  INDUSTRIAL  WORK 


225 


the  under  side  of  the  waist  line.  Both  the 
arms  and  legs  will  then  be  movable.  Paste 
cotton  on  the  head  for  hair  and  whiskers; 
on  the  hands  for  fur  mittens;  on  the  waist 
line  of  the  coat  and  above  the  ankles  for 
the  tops  of  the  leggings.  This  makes  an 
interesting  Christmas  decoration. 

12—  Roving  or  Yarn  Rug 
Materials:      Loom  and  needle,  carpet 
yarn  or  string  for  warp,  and  rags,   yarn, 
chenille,  raffia,  or  roving  for  the  woof. 

Directions:  Thread  the  warp  back 
and  forth  through  the  notches  at  the  ends 
of  the  loom.  See  that  it  is  as  tight  as 
possible.  Weave  the  woof  over  one 
strand  of  the  warp  and  under  the  next,  across  the  rug. 
Return,  going  under  the  strand  you  went  over  before,  and 
over  the  next,  and  so  on.  If  a  long  wooden  needle  is  used, 


at  Christmas. 


Figure  29.     Raffia  bag,  yarn  mat  on  a  homemade  loom  anu  a  raffia  mat. 


16— 


226 


RURAL  EDUCATION 


Figure  30.      Roving  and  chenille  rugs. 

it  may  be  drawn  across  the  entire  mat  at  once,  thus  saving 
time.  Colored  borders  and  stripes  may  be  used,  or  designs 
worked  in.  The  loom  can  be  adj  usted  to  any  size  of  material 
In  a  previous  paragraph  see  directions  for  making  a  home- 
made loom.  Keep  the  woof  tight  by  packing  it  with  the 
needle  and  fingers.  When  finished,  remove  and  bind  the 
ends  of  the  warp  with  carpet  yarn,  or  make  a  fringe.  Raffia 
may  be  used  instead  of  roving  or  yarn.  See  Figures  29  and  30. 

13 — Hammock 

Materials:  Cardboard  loom,  macrame  cord  in  two 
colors,  a  large  darning  needle,  and  two  brass  rings  about 
three  fourths  of  an  inch  in  diameter. 

Directions:  Fasten  the  warp  into  the  rings  which  are 
attached  to  one  side  of  the  loom,  and  wind  it  around  the 
ends  of  the  loom  over  the  notches,  or  through  the  holes,  if 
those  are  used  instead  of  notches.  Any  number  of  warp 


GENERAL  INDUSTRIAL  WORK 


227 


Figure  31.     A  hammock  made  of  macrame  cord. 

strands  may  be  used,  from  sixteen  to  twenty  being  common. 
After  the  warp  is  stretched  tightly,  begin  the  weaving  with 
the  same  material  used  for  warp.  The  woof  strands  should 
be  about  half  as  long  as  the  distance  between  the  two  rings 
after  the  hammock  is  removed.  Colored  stripes  may  alter- 
nate or  borders  may  be  used.  When  finished,  remove  from 
the  loom  and  make  a  fringe. 

14 — Reed  Napkin  Ring 

Materials:  Wooden  loom,  number  three  or  four  rattan, 
number  one  rattan,  flat  reed  and  a  knife. 

Directions:  Make  a  small  wooden  base  of  basswood  or 
pine  two  and  one  half  inches  square  and  a  quarter  of  an 
inch  thick.  On  this  base  draw  a  circle  two  inches  in  diam- 
eter. With  the  ruler  find  the  perpendicular  diameter,  and 
place  a  dot  at  each  end  of  it  on  the  circle.  Do  the  same  for 
the  horizontal  diameter.  Again  divide  the  space  between 
the  dots  into  three  equal  parts,  until  you  have  twelve  dots 
on  the  circle,  the  same  distance  apart.  With  a  brace  and 
bit,  or  gimlet,  bore  holes  through  the  base  at  the  dots. 
These  should  be  a  trifle  larger  than  the  size  of  rattan  you 
want  to  use  for  the  frame  of  the  napkin  ring.  Cut  twelve 


228  RURAL  EDUCATION 

pieces  of  rattan  about  the  size  of  a  match  and  one  and  one 
half  inches  long.  Place  these  firmly  in  the  holes  of  the  base. 
Using  rattan  a  size  smaller  as  a  weaver,  weave  four  times 
around  the  base,  going  inside  of  one  upright  and  outside  the 
next.  The  second  time  around  weave  opposite  to  the  first 
time,  and  alternate  each  time.  The  weaver  is  moistened  so 
it  is  tough  and  pliable.  Pull  it  tight,  and  press  firmly  against 
the  base.  Next  use  flat  reed  for  two  layers  and  weave  in 
the  same  way.  Then  weave  four  rounds  more  of  the  same 
size  rattan  as  on  the  bottom.  Fasten  the  last  end  securely. 
Pull  the  ring  off  the  base,  being  careful  not  to  leave  any  of 
the  uprights  in  it.  With  number  one  rattan,  bind  the  edge 
together  firmly  by  fastening  one  end  around  the  top  of  an 
upright,  crossing  to  the  next  lower  end,  twisting  around  this 
end,  crossing  to  the  next  upper  end,  and  so  on,  until  you 
have  gone  around  the  ring  twice  and  finished  binding  each 
upright.  Cut  off  the  ends  of  the  uprights.  Your  napkin 
ring  should  be  strong  and  somewhat  resemble  a  snare  drum 
on  the  outside.  Be  sure  to  keep  the  material  moist  while 
working.  See  Figure  32. 

15— Raffia  Picture  Frame 

Materials:     Chartboard  and  raffia. 

Directions:  Cut  out  a  circle  from  the  cardboard.  It 
may  be  any  desired  size,  but  about  six  inches  in  diameter 
is  common.  Cut  another  circle  in  the  center,  leaving  a  hole 
in  the  middle  about  two  and  one  half  inches  in  diameter. 
Select  broad,  smooth  raffia.  Moisten  it,  and  wind  carefully 
around  from  center  to  outside.  When  finished,  sew  a  braid 
of  raffia  around  the  outer  edge,  making  a  loop  at  the  top  by 
means  of  which  to  hang  it  up.  Put  in  the  picture.  Oval 
or  square  shape  frames  may  be  made  according  to  the 
individual  preference. 


GENERAL  INDUSTRIAL  WORK 


229 


16— Rattan  Mat 

Materials:  Number  three  rattan  for  spokes,  raffia  and 
number  one  rattan  for  weaving. 

Directions:  For  a  six-inch  mat  you  will  need  to  use 
pieces  of  rattan  fourteen  inches  long  in  order  to  make  the 
border  and  fasten  the  ends.  Cut  eight  pieces  of  the  number 
three  rattan  fourteen  inches  and  one  piece  eight  inches,  as 
it  is  easier  to  weave  with  an  odd  number  of  spokes.  Take 
four  of  the  long  spokes  and  cut  a  slit  one  half  inch  long 
exactly  in  the  middle  of  each.  Draw  the  other  four  long 
spokes  half  way  through  these  slits,  making  a  cross.  Put 
in  the  short  spoke  until  the  end  shows  on  the  other  side. 
With  a  needle  weave  raffia  over  one  and  under  the  next  spoke, 
starting  in  the  center,  until  you  have  woven  a  little  circular 
mat  about  an  inch  all  the  way  round  from  the  center,  or  two 
inches  in  diameter.  You  will  thus  make  a  firmer  middle 
than  you  can  usually  get  with  the  rattan.  Now  use  number 


Figure  32.      Rattan  and  raffia  work  showing  serving  tray,  baskets,   collar  box, 
mats  and  napkin  rings. 


230  .  RURAL  EDUCATION 

one  rattan  for  the  weaver  in  the  same  way,  and  keep  the 
seventeen  spokes  the  same  distance  apart,  until  you  have 
a  mat  about  six  inches  in  diameter.  Now  sharpen  the  ends 
of  the  spokes,  moisten  them  so  they  will  bend  easily,  and 
pass  each  one  in  front  of  the  next  spoke  to  the  left,  and  push 
it  down  beside  the  second  spoke,  thus  making  a  loop  about 
two  inches  across  and  an  inch  high.  Do  this  with  each 
spoke  until  the  border  is  finished.  While  the  mat  is  moist, 
see  that  it  lies  perfectly  flat.  When  dry  put  on  a  coat  of 
clear  or  colored  shellac.  See  Figure  32. 

17— Rattan  Basket 

Materials:  Number  four  and  number  two  rattan,  and 
plain  raffia. 

Directions:  Cut  eight  pieces  of  number  four  rattan  from 
eighteen  to  twenty-four  inches  long,  depending  upon  the 
height  of  the  basket  desired,  twenty  inches  being  a  good 
length.  Cut  one  piece  an  inch  or  two  more  than  half  this 
length  for  the  odd  spoke.  Proceed  as  for  the  mat  in  number 
16,  using  the  raffia  center,  until  you  have  a  four-inch  bottom. 
Moisten  the  spokes,  and  turn  each  one  up  as  you  pass  the 
weaver  around  it.  Keep  the  weaving  pressed  down  firmly, 
the  spokes  the  same  distance  apart,  and  be  very  careful  in 
shaping  your  basket,  that  it  may  be  even  all  the  way  around. 
When  through  weaving,  fasten  the  end  securely.  Make  a 
border  with  the  spokes  as  for  the  mat,  only  pass  the  spoke 
to  the  left  in  front  of  two  spokes  instead  of  one,  and  push  it 
down  beside  the  third.  This  will  strengthen  the  top.  Be 
sure  the  shape  is  good.  Let  dry.  Shellac,  natural  or  colored. 
See  Figure  32. 

18— Raffia  and  Rattan  Mat 

Materials:     Number  two  or  three  rattan,  raffia,  needle. 

Directions:  Moisten  the  rattan  and  begin  a  coil. 
Take  a  needle  full  of  raffia.  Wind  the  end  of  the  coil  for  a 


GENERAL  INDUSTRIAL  WORK  231 

short  distance  and  fasten  it  together  in  a  ring  as  small  as 
you  can  draw  it.  Continue  coiling  the  rattan,  and  wind- 
ing it  with  raffia.  Wind  from  you.  About  every  third 
wind,  pass  the  needle  between  the  ring  formed  and  the 
next  coil  of  rattan,  thus  fastening  the  rattan  to  the  ring. 
The  third  coil  is  fastened  to  the  second  in  the  same  man- 
ner and  so  on  until  the  mat  is  completed  to  any  desired 
size.  Colors  may  be  used  for  as  many  coils  as  you  wish, 
making  borders.  This  makes  a  soft,  durable  mat. 

19— Collar  Box 

Materials:     Same  as  for  number  eighteen. 

Directions:  Make  the  bottom  six  inches  in  diameter, 
the  same  as  the  mat  was  made.  Then  turn  the  coils  up  to 
form  the  circular  side  of  the  box.  If  two  pieces  of  number 
two  or  three  rattan  are  wound  together  instead  of  one 
piece,  the  effect  is  more  pleasing,  and  you  will  have  a  firmer 
box.  Continue  the  coils  until  the  box  is  three  inches  deep. 
Now  make  a  cover  in  the  same  manner  as  the  bottom  was 
made,  turning  the  edges  up  half  an  inch,  so  they  will  fit 
down  over  the  box,  when  inverted  for  the  cover.  This 
may  be  fastened  on,  if  desired.  See  Figure  32. 

20— Wastebasket 

Materials:  A  circular  base  of  one  half  an  inch  of  pine 
or  basswood  nine  inches  in  diameter,  heavy  rattan  for 
spokes,  number  seven  or  eight,  and  rattan  about  two  sizes 
smaller  for  weaving. 

Directions:  Drill  a  row  of  twenty-five  holes  one  half 
an  inch  from  the  edge  of  the  wooden  base.  Cut  twenty- 
five  spokes  of  heavy  rattan  about  two  feet  long,  and  put 
them  through  the  holes  so  that  they  extend  about  three 
fourths  of  an  inch  below.  Using  rattan  about  two  sizes 
smaller  as  a  weaver,  turn  the  bottom  side  up,  and  weave 


232  RURAL  EDUCATION 

six  or  eight  rows  around  the 
spokes,  as  in  basket  weaving. 
Then  fasten  the  ends  of  the 
spokes  securely,  making  a 
close  border.  Now  turn  the 
bottom  over,  and  press  the 
Figure  3:3.  Rattan  wastebaskets.  board  down  firmly  on  the 

rattan  base.     Begin  to  weave 

above  the  board,  keeping  the  twenty-five  spokes  the  same 
distance  apart,  and  shaping  the  basket  as  you  proceed. 
Make  to  any  desired  height,  usually  about  a  foot,  and 
fasten  the  top  of  the  spokes  as  for  the  mats  and  baskets. 
Cut  off  ends  of  spokes.  Colored  rattan  will  make  effective 
designs.  Finish  with  shellac.  See  Figure  33 

21— Serving  Tray 

Materials :     Wooden  base,  pine  or  basswood,  and  rattan. 

Directions:  Make  a  wooden  base  of  half  inch  material 
in  an  oval  about  fifteen  inches  long  and  ten  inches  at  the 
widest  part.  Bore  holes  for  heavy  rattan  as  for  the  basket. 
Make  the  spokes  long  enough  to  weave  and  fasten  below 
and  to  make  the  tray  about  two  inches  deep  with  a  close 
border  on  top.  Weave  with  number  five  or  six  rattan  and 
use  number  seven  or  eight  for  the  spokes.  This  makes  a 
very  firm  and  useful  tray.  It  should  have  two  coats  of 
shellac  for  finish,  either  dark  or  natural.  See  Figure  32. 

22— Clay  Modeling 

Materials:     Clay,  oil  cloth  water  colors  and  shellac. 

Directions:  Prepare  the  clay  the  day  before  it  is  to  be 
used.  Do  not  have  it  too  wet,  just  moist  enough  to  work 
well.  Knead  until  oily.  Mould  into  shape  of  object 
modeled.  If  fruit,  tint  with  water  colors.  Let  dry.  Shel- 
lac with  natural  finish.  See  Figure  34. 


GENERAL  INDUSTRIAL  WORK 


233 


Figure  34.     Clay  work  showing  fruit  and  geometrical  forms. 

23— Rope  Work 

Rope  is  used  so  much  on  the  farm  that  every  boy,  at 
least,  should  know  how  to  take  care  of  it,  make  a  splice, 


Figure  3c 


Showing  the  construction  of  rope.      The  fibers  are  woven  into  yarns, 
the  yarns  into  strands,  and  the  strands  into  rope. 


234 


RURAL  EDUCATION 


Four  Strand 


CabJe 


Figure  36.     Strands  are  twisted  "left  hand"  to  form  ropes  and   the  ropes  are 
twisted  "right  hand"  to  form  a  cable. 

and  tie  the  most  common  knots.  Rope  is  made  from  the 
fibers  of  several  different  plants,  as  manila,  sisal,  and  com- 
mon hemp,  flax,  cotton,  jute,  and  cocoanut  fiber.  These 
fibers  are  twisted  in  yarns,  the  yarns  are  twisted  the  oppo- 
site directions  into  strands,  and  the  strands  twisted  in  the 
same  direction  as  the  fibers,  into  rope.  The  opposite 
twisting  keeps  the  rope  from  untwisting.  See  Figure  35. 

The  strength  of  rope  depends  upon  the  quality  of  the 
fiber,  the  number  of  strands,  the  workmanship,  and  the 
kind  of  preservatives  on  the  fiber.  The  strength  naturally 
decreases  with  age,  wear,  and  exposure.  A  safe  load  must 
be  much  less  than  the  breaking  strength,  and  for  old  ropes  it 
must  be  a  matter  of  good  judgment.  Rope  should  be  kept 
in  a  dry  place.  If  it  gets  wet,  it  must  be  stretched  out 
straight  to  dry.  A  hardened  rope  may  be  made  pliable 
again  by  boiling  in  soft  water. 

"Whipping"  is  used  to  prevent  the  ends  from  untwisting. 
This  is  done  by  putting  a  string  under  a  strand  of  the 
rope  about  three  inches  from  the  end  and  allowing  one 


GENERAL  INDUSTRIAL  WORK 


235 


Figure  37.     Whipping  or  wrapping  the  end  of  a  rope,  showing  the  first  three 
steps  in  the  process. 

end  to  hang  loose.  Wrap  the  other  end  of  the  string  once 
around  the  rope,  and  then  fold  the  loose  end  over.  Con- 
tinue wrapping  the  string  tightly  around  the  rope  and 
string  until  you  have  wrapped  about  half  way  to  the  end 
of  the  rope.  Fold  the  loose  end  back  to  form  a  loop  that 

extends  a  little 
beyond  the  end 
of  the  rope. 
Wrap  the  string 
around  the  rope 
and  loop,  and 
pull  the  other 
end  until  it  draws 
the  string  under 
the  whipping  as 
far  as  possible. 
See  Figures  37 
and  38  showing 

Figure  38.     The  final  steps  in  whipping.  the  Operation. 


236 


RURAL  EDUCATION 


Figure  39. 


Forming  the  "bight"  or  loop  for  a 
figure  eight  knot. 


The  figure 
eight  knot  is  used 
for  preventing  the 
strands  from  un- 

:jjftll^jjjll^^  twisting,  and  for 

forming  a  hand 
hold  at  the  end  of 
the  rope  or  at  any 
point  between  the 
ends.  In  making 
it  form  a  bight  as 
shown  in  Figure 

39,  then  move  the 
end  as  shown  by 
the  arrow  in  Fig- 
ure 39  until  it  is 
in  the  position 
shown   in   Figure 

40.  Draw  it  up 
tight. 

The  overhand 
knot  is  used  for 
the  same  purpose 
as  the  figure  eight 
knot  and  is  made 
by  forming  a 
bight  through  which  the  end  of  the  rope  is  passed.  The 
loose  knot  is  shown  in  Figure  41. 

The  square  knot  is  used  for  tying  rope  securely  toge- 
ther. The  knot  may  be  tied  by  studying  the  illustrations. 
Cross  the  ropes  as  shown  in  Figure  42.  Move  end  B  as 
shown  by  the  arrow  until  it  is  in  the  position  shown  in  Fig- 
ure 43.  Move  ends  A  and  B  as  shown  by  the  arrows  until 


Figure  40.     The  completed  figure  eight  knot. 


Figure  41.     The  overhand  knot  before  drawing  tight. 


GENERAL  INDUSTRIAL  WORK 


237 


Figure  42.     Crossing  the  knots  to  tie  a  square  knot 


they  are  in  the 
position  shown  in 
Figure  44.  Be 
sure  the  proper 
end  is  nearest  you 
at  the  point  of 
crossing  in  the 
right  hand.  Move 
end  B,  as  shown 
by  the  arrow,  un- 
til it  is  in  the 
position  shown  in 
Figure  45,  and 
draw  up  tight  as 
shown  in  Figure 
46.  Both  parts  of 
one  rope  should 
be  in  front  of  or 
behind  the  other, 
as  shown  at  points 
C  and  D  in  Figure 
45,  not  as  shown 
at  points  E  and  F 
of  the  granny  knot 
in  Figure  47. 

The  granny 
knot)  shown  in 
Figure  47,  is  of 
very  little  use  and 
tends  to  slip  under 
a  pull.  It  is  tied 
only  by  those  who 

Figure  44.     Forming  a  loop  by  crossing  ends  A  and  B.       do  not     knOW  the 


Figure  43.  '  The  second  step. 


238 


RURAL  EDUCATION 


Figure  45.  End  B  brought  under  to  complete  the  knot. 


difference  be- 
tween it  and  the 
square  knot. 

The  bread-box 
knot,  shown  in 
Figure  48,  looks 
very  much  like  the 
square  knot,  but 
it  is  likely  to  slip. 
The  difference  in 
the  finished  knot 
is  in  the  positions 
of  the  ends  A  and 
B,  as  can  be.  seen 
in  comparing  Fig- 
ures 45  and  48. 

The  slip  knot 
is  used  when  a 
loop  is  wanted 
that  will  slip  up 
tight  around  an 
object.  There  are 
four  steps  in  tying 
it.  Hold  the  rope 
as  shown  in  Fig- 
ure 49.  Move  the 
right  hand  so  that 

A  poor  knot:  note         point  A  mOVCS   as 

shown  by  the  ar- 
row in  Figure  49,  thus  forming  a  round  turn  in  the  left  hand 
as  shown  in  Figure  50,  and  allow  the  right  hand  to  slip  on 
the  rope  to  point  B.  Move  the  right  hand  so  that  point  B 
moves,  as  shown  by  the  arrow,  to  the  position  shown  in  Fig- 


Figure  46.     Pulling  the  square  knot  tight 


Figure  47. 


gure  47.     The  granny  knot.     A  poor  knot;  no 
the  difference  between  it  and  the  square  knot. 


GENERAL  INDUSTRIAL  WORK 


239 


Figure  48.     The  bread-box    knot.     Similar    to   the 
square  knot  but  apt  to  slip. 


Figure  49.     Starting  the  slip  knot. 


Figure  50.     The  second  step. 


ure  51.  Draw  the 
overhand  knot 
that  has  been 
formed  up  tight, 
and  the  finished 
knot  should  ap- 
pear as  shown  in 
Figure  52. 

The  slip  knot 
and  half  hitch 
make  a  combina- 
tion that  form  a 
permanent  loop 
that  will  not  slip. 
Tie  a  slip  knot  by 
the  method  shown 
in  Figures  49  to 
52,  except  that 
you  start  with  the 
short  end  held  in 
the  right  hand  and 
the  long  part  in 
the  left  hand.  The 
slip  knot  is  shown 
in  Figure  53. 
Move  end  A  as 
shown  by  the  ar- 
row. A  half  hitch 
is  thus  made 
around  the  long 
the  knot  by  draw- 


end  as  shown  in  Figure  54.     Complete 
ing  up  tight  as  shown  in  Figure  55. 

The  double  bowline  is  used  when  a  loop  is  wanted  be- 


:4o 


RURAL  EDUCATION 


Figure  51. 


The  point  B  in  figure    50    has  been  passed 
through  the  loop 


Figure  52.      The  finished  slip  knot. 


tween  the  ends  of 
a  rope  that  will 
not  pull  tight  or 
slip.  It  is  tied  as 
follows:  Grasp  the 
rope  as  shown  in 
Figure  56.  Tie  an 
overhand  knot  as 
shown  in  Figure 

57.  Fold  loop  A 
back    over    the 
over-hand  knot  as 
shown  by  the  ar- 
row,  and   then 
grasp    the    knot 
with  the  left  hand 
exactly  at  point 
B   as   shown   in 
Figures  57  and 

58.  Hold    the 
double  bight  se- 
curely in  the  left 
hand  and  draw 
that  part  of  the 
rope  which  forms 
loop  A  through 
the  double  bight, 
as  shown  by  the 
arrow  in  Figure 

59.  This    knot 


Figure  53.      Beginning  the  slip  knot  and  half  hitch. 

may  be  tied  through  a  loose  ring. 

For  splices  and   other  knots  see  various  bulletins  and 
special  books  on  this  subject. 


GENERAL  INDUSTRIAL  WORK 


241 


f  >wA 

|     :      I*- 


Figure  54.     The  hall  hitch  added. 


Figure  65.     Completed  by  drawing  up  tight. 


Figure  56.     Starting  the  bowline  knot. 


proper  way  for  use  is  called  reeving. 

always  has  a  becket  or  projection  to 

fastened.      In  reeving    blocks   it  is  best 

through  the  blocks  in  the  opposite  direction  to  that  in  which 


The  block  and 
tackle  is  used  for 
lifting  heavy 
loads.  The  more 
ropes  in  the 
"tackle"  the 
greater  the  weight 
that  can  be  lifted 
with  a  given  pow- 
er. Figures  60 
and  61  show  how 
to  thread  double 
and  triple  blocks. 
,The  part  of  the 
rope  to  which  the 
power  is  applied  is 
called  the  fall- 
rope,  and  the 
block  from  which 
it  passes  is  called 
the  fall-block. 
The  fall-block  in 
Figure  61  is  a 
triple  block.  The 
others  shown  are 
double  blocks. 

Passing  the 
rope  through  the 
blocks  in  the 
One  of  the  blocks 
which  the  rope  is 
to  pass  the  rope 


242 


RURAL  EDUCATION 


Figure  57.     The  second  step,  or  overhand  knot. 


Figure  58. 


Loop  A  folded  back  as  shown  by  arrow 
in  figure  57. 


Figure  59.     The  final  step  of  the  bowline  knot. 


it  runs  when  the 
blocks  are  in  ac- 
tion. This  saves 
pulling  all  the 
rope  through  the 
block.  Fasten  the 
rope  to  the  beck- 
et  and  pass  it 
over  the  sheave 
farthest  from  the 
becket  and  around 
thepulleysin  each 
block  as  shown  in 
the  illustration. 

Common  wood- 
en blocks  with  iron 
sheaves  are  used 
for  all  ordinary 
work.  For  very 
heavy  work,  such 
as  stump  pulling, 
special  blocks 
with  heavy  hooks 
and  straps  may  be 
obtained.  In  ord~ 
dering,  the  size  of 


the  rope  to  be  used,  the  number  of  sheaves,  and  whether 
a  becket  is  desired  should  be  explicitly  stated. 

Steel  blocks  may  be  had,  as,  also,  blocks  of  different 
construction  for  wire  rope. 

All  blocks  and  rope  must  receive  the  very  best  of  care. 
Otherwise  their  efficiency  will  be  considerably  impaired, 
involving  the  possibility  of  both  loss  and  danger. 


GENERAL  INDUSTRIAL  WORK 


243 


Figure  60.     Simple    "block 
and  tackle." 


Figure  61.  Showing  another 
form  of  block. 


REFERENCES 


Agricultural  Engineering  by  Davidson;  Knots,  Splices  and  Rope 
Work  by  A.  H.  Merrill;  Knots,  Hitches  and  Splices  by  H.  W.  Riley; 
Kent's  Mechanical  Engineer's  Pocket  Book;  The  Blue  Book  of  Rope 
Transmission;  Rope  and  Its  Use  on  the  Farm  by  J.  B.  Frear  (Min- 
nesota Agricultural  Experiment  Station  Bulletin  136)  and  Rural  School 
Agriculture  Bulletin  No.  1,  Minnesota  Agricultural  Experiment  Station. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 
SEWING  IN  THE  RURAL  SCHOOLS 

The  elementary  work  in  sewing,  where  the  teacher  is 
prepared  to  give  instruction,  is  no  longer  regarded  as  a 
fad  even  in  the  most  conservative  districts,  as  practically 
all  recognize  the  value  of  systematic  work  of  this  character. 
The  daughters  for  obvious  reasons  do  not  receive  the  do- 
mestic economy  training  in  the  home  that  their  grand- 
mothers received.  Hence  the  necessity  of  practical  train- 
ing in  the  schools.  Ultimately  the  school  day  should  be 
divided  into  two  sessions,  one  half  the  day  being  given  to 
academic  studies,  and  the  other  half  to  industrial  work. 
The  average  community  is  not  yet  ready  for  this  depart- 
ure, as  public  sentiment  must  support  any  successful  course 
in  the  schools.  In  the  meantime  the  general  period  of  an 
hour  twice  a  week  should  be  devoted  to  sewing. 

The  equipment  needed  for  a  rural  school  is  not  elab- 
orate. A  thimble,  needles,  thread,  emery  ball,  tape- 
measure,  shears  or  scissors,  one  pair  of  buttonhole  scissors, 
and  the  material  used  in  the  model  and  garment  making. 
For  some  of  the  advanced  work  a  sewing  machine  would 
save  time,  and  the  students  would  get  the  practice,  if  they 
could  ase  one.  Some  rural  schools  rent  a  machine  for  all 
or  part  of  the  school  year,  as  it  is  needed.  Such  an  arrange- 
ment would  not  be  expensive  and  would  be  desirable,  if 
room  in  the  school  permits. 

A  thimble  must  be  used  when  sewing.  Each  child 
should  furnish  her  own  and  have  it  fit  the  middle  finger. 
A  thimble  made  of  silver,  celluloid  or  aluminum  is  better 
than  one  of  brass,  for  the  latter  may  cause  infection  in  case 
of  a  sore  on  the  finger.  The  emery  bag  is  filled  with  pow- 

244 


SEWING  IN  RURAL  SCHOOLS  245 

dered  emery,  and  may  be  purchased  for  five  cents  at  any 
store.  When  the  hands  become  moist  and  sticky,  the 
needle  does  not  push  through  the  cloth  easily,  due  to  the 
rust  formation.  In  such  a  case,  polish  the  needle  by  run- 
ning it  through  the  emery  bag  a  few  times.  Scissors  are 
large  enough  for  school  use,  and  may  be  purchased  for 
twenty-five  or  thirty  cents.  Instruments  under  six  inches 
long  are  scissors;  those  six  inches  or  over  are  shears. 
These  may  be  brought  from  home  or  the  school  may  own 
enough  for  two  pupils  to  use  one  pair.  They  must  always 
be  kept  sharp,  or  they  will  neither  cut  easily  nor  accu- 
rately. Do  not  allow  them  to  drop,  as  they  may  be  loos- 
ened or  even  broken.  It  is  well  to  remember  that  tools 
poorly  taken  care  of  will  not  give  good  service. 

Needles  and  thread  must  be  used  according  to  the 
work  to  be  done.  Mrs.  Blair,  in  her  Sewing  Tablets,  sug- 
gests the  following: 

The  size  of  thread  used  should  be  in  proportion  to  the 
thread  of  the  material,  for  coarse  gingham,  about  number 
70,  for  fine  soft  muslin,  number  100.  It  is  always  best  to 
use  a  fine  needle  and  thread  for  hemming,  as  the  stitches 
show  less.  The  following  sizes  of  needles  are  commonly 
used  with  the  corresponding  number  of  thread : 

Needle  Thread 

Number  five Silkateen  and  Coarse  Cotton 

Number  seven Fifty 

Number  eight Sixty,  eighty 

Number  nine • Ninety 

Number  ten One  hundred 

Number  eleven One  hundred  twenty 

Number  twelve One  hundred  fifty 

The  correct  length  of  a  needleful  of  thread  is  from 
the  tips  of  the  fingers  to  the  shoulder  of  the  extended  arm. 
Do  not  bite  the  thread;  cut  it  with  the  scissors  or  knife. 


246  RURAL  EDUCATION 

Thread  the  needle  with  the  end  of  the  thread  cut  off  from 
the  spool,  as  this  will  prevent  knotting.  Be  sure  to  baste 
all  seams  before  attempting  to  sew  them.  Where  the 
dimensions  of  the  material  are  given,  the  first  is  to  be  on 
the  length  of  the  goods,  and  the  second  on  the  width. 

Correct  position  for  sewing  is  very  important.  The 
body  should  be  erect,  and  both  feet  squarely  on  the  floor. 
The  light  should  come  from  the  left  unless  the  student  is 
left-handed.  Hold  work  high  enough  to  be  comfortable. 

The  plan  of  the  course  in  sewing  is  to  begin  with  the 
fourth  year,  combining  the  fourth  and  fifth-year  students 
for  the  elementary  work,  and  the  sixth  and  seventh-year 
students  for  the  advanced  work,  doing  half  of  the  two- 
year  course  each  year.  This  plan  corresponds  with  the 
course  suggested  for  the  boys  in  manual  training  for  the 
Second  and  Third  Divisions.  As  there  are  usually  not  many 
students  in  a  rural  school  in  these  classes,  the  teacher 
can  conduct  the  work  in  sewing  and  supervise  the  boys' 
work  in  manual  training  at  the  same  time.  Instead  of 
calling  the  work  "first  year,"  and  "second  year"  for  each 
division,  it  is  given  as  "one  year,"  and  "other  year,"  as 
it  naturally  alternates  when  combined  in  this  manner, 
and  what  is  first  year  work  for  one  class,  is  not  such  for  the 
next.  The  number  of  lessons  required  for  each  piece  of 
work  is  based  upon  the  general  period  of  one  hour. 
Naturally,  some  will  work  faster  than  others;  so  the  time 
is  merely  suggestive  for  planning  the  work. 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  STITCHES 

WORK  FROM  RIGHT  TO  LEFT 

Basting  is  used  to  hold  two  pieces  or  two  parts  of  one 
piece  of  cloth  in  the  exact  relation  desired  and  used  as  a 
guide  in  sewing.  The  stitches  are  made  over  and  under 


SEWING  IN  RURAL  SCHOOLS  247 

the  material,  working  from  right  to  left.     If  stitches  are  of 
uneven  length,  have  long  stitches  over  and  short  under. 

Figure  62.     Basting  stitch. 

Running  is  light  stitching.  The  stitches  are  made  the 
same  as  in  basting,  but  are  short  and  of  even  length. 

^ — — 

Figure  63.     Running  stitch. 

Gathering.  For  gathering  the  running  stitch  is  used. 
When  several  inches  have  been  gathered  on  the  needle, 
bring  the  double  thread  from  the  eye  of  the  needle,  under 
the  point  and  then  under  the  eye,  making  the  figure  eight, 
and  drawing  the  thread  tight.  Continue  until  material  is 
held  securely  on  the  needle.  To  place  the  gathers,  hold 
them  firmly  as  they  are  on  the  needle,  between  the  thumb 
and  forefinger  of  the  left  hand,  and  with  the  index  finger  of 
the  right  hand  at  the  back  of  the  gathers,  and  the  thumb  on 
the  opposite  side  of  the  material,  bring  out  the  tiny  gathers. 
Then  pull  the  material  straight  till  the  gathers  are  fixed. 

Backstitch.  To  make  a  backstitch,  insert  the  needle 
and  make  a  stitch  under  the  material  twice  the  desired 
length;  again  insert  the  needle,  going  back  half  this  distance 
and  forward  twice  the  length  of  the  backstitch.  The  back- 


Figure  64.    Backstitch. 

stitch  is  used  where  strength  is  desired  or  to  resemble  ma- 
chine stitching.     The  second  view  shows  a  row  of  back- 


248 


RURAL  EDUCATION 


stitches  as  it  would  be  seen,  if  material  were  removed  from 
the  right-hand  side  of  it. 

The  combination  stitch,  or  a  needleful  of  running  stitches 
and  a  backstitch,  is  used  where  more  strength  is  required 
than  obtained  with  running  stitches. 


Figure  65.     Combination  stitch. 

Hemming.     When  hemming,  hold  the  material  over  the 
index  ringer  of  the  left  hand.     To  fasten  the  thread,  place 
.        .         the  end  of  it  about  half  an  inch  under 
the  edge  of  the  hem.  It  will  be  fastened 
by  hemming  over  it.     Keeping  needle 
parallel  with  the  edge  of  hem,  take  one 
thread  of  the  material  and  one  of  the 
edge  of  the  hem.     Make  the  stitches 
of  the  same  length  and  the  same  dis- 
tance apart. 

Buttonhole  stitches  are  worked  close 
together  and  used  to  finish  raw  edges. 
See  "Buttonholes"  for  position  of 
needle,  position  of  thread  and  finished 
edge. 

To  overhand  two  pieces  of  cloth 
together,  hold  the  material  between 
the  index  finger  and  thumb  of  the  left 
hand  so  that  the  creased  edges  are  in 
a  horizontal  position.  The  stitch  is 
made  by  bringing  the  needle  over  and 
then  straight  through  the  two  edges. 
Make  stitches  shallow  and  close  together.  Pull  the  thread 
tight  for  each  stitch. 


Figure 


Hemming. 


SEWING  IN  RURAL  SCHOOLS  249 


Figure  67.     Overhand  stitch. 

For  hemstitching,  pull  six  threads,  fewer  if  the  material 
is  coarse,  twice  the  desired  width  of  the  hem  from  the  end 
of  the  material.  Turn  and  baste  the  hem.  Hold  the  ma- 
terial and  needle  as  for  hemming.  Put 
needle  under  three  or  four  threads  and 
hold  the  thread  as  in  making  the  chain 
stitch.  Draw  the  thread  tight.  Make  a 
stitch  similar  to  hemming.  This  will 
Figure  es.  Hemstitch,  bring  the  thread  to  the  middle  of  the 
next  group  of  threads.  Hold  the  thread  down  with  left 
thumb,  put  the  needle  under  the  next  group  of  threads,  and 
continue  as  above. 

WORK  FROM  LEFT  TO  RIGHT 

Overcasting  is  used  to  keep  the  raw  edges  of  the  cloth 
from  raveling.  It  is  made  by  bringing  the  thread  over  the 
edge  and  putting  the  needle  through  the  material.  The 
stitches  are  an  eighth  of  an  inch  in  depth  and  the  same  dis- 
tance, or  a  trifle  more,  apart. 


Figure  69.     Overcasting. 

The  loop  stitch  is  used  to  finish  the  raw  edges  of  flannel 
or  of  doilies.     See  illustration. 


UJJUJLJJJUJJJUJJ 


Figure  70.     Loop  stitch. 


250 


RURAL  EDUCATION 


WORK  TOWARD  ONE 


The  chain  stitch  is  an  ornamental  stitch.  In  making  it, 
the  thread  is  held  to  the  left  with  the  thumb  to  keep  it  under 
the  needle.  Always  insert  the  needle  within  the  last  link. 


Figure  71.      Chain  stitch. 

The  featherstitch  is  used  for  ornamentation.  When  mak- 
ing the  stitch  to  the  right,  hold  the  thread  to  the  left; 
when  making  the  stitch  to  the  left,  hold  the  thread  to  the 
right  of  the  general  direction  of  the  stem.  Clusters  of  two 
or  three  stitches  to  each  side  may  be  made  instead  of  the 
single  one  to  each  side. 


Figure  72.     Featherstitch. 
WORK  AWAY  FROM  ONE 

The  catstitch  is  an  ornamental  stitch.  It  is  also  used 
in  making  flannel  seams  and  hems.  The  row  of  catstitch 
grows  in  length  away  from  one,  but  the  needle  is  inserted 
toward  one. 


SEWING  IN  RURAL  SCHOOLS  251 


Figure  73.     Catstitch. 

SECOND  DIVISION.    ONE  YEAR 
1— Stitches.     (Six  Lessons.) 

Materials:  One  piece  of  one  eighth  inch  checked  apron 
gingham  sixteen  inches  by  six  inches,  number  7  needle  and 
red  cotton  thread  number  50. 

Directions:  Count  down  forty-two  checks,  fold  and 
crease  between  checks.  Knot  the  thread  for  basting  only, 
fasten  thread  with  short  running  stitches  and  backstitches. 

Basting  Stitches.  1st  row.  Down  from  folded  edge  two 
checks,  under  two  checks,  over  two  checks,  etc.  2nd  row. 
Down  from  first  row  four  checks,  under  one  check  over 
three  checks.  3rd  row.  Down  from  first  row  four  checks, 
under  one  check,  over  one  check. 

Running  Stitches.  4th  row.  Down  from  third  row  four 
checks.  Make  two  stitches  to  a  check. 

Backstitching.  5th  row.  Down  from  fourth  row  four 
checks,  making  stitches  one  eighth  inch  long,  half  way  across 
practice  piece.  The  other  half,  make  stitches  one  sixteenth 
inch  long. 

Combination,  or  running  stitches  with  the  backstitch 
for  every  needleful.  6th  row.  Down  from  fifth  row,  four 
checks.  Make  a  needleful  of  running  stitches,  then  a  back- 
stitch, then  the  running  stitches  again,  and  so  on. 

Chain  Stitch.  7th  row.  Down  from  sixth  row  four 
checks.  Make  each  link  one  eighth  inch  long. 

Catstitch.  8th  row.  Down  from  seventh  row  three 
checks.  Make  stitches  across  two  rows  of  checks.  Start 
at  left-hand  edge  and  work  away  from  you. 


252 


RURAL  EDUCATION 


Feather,  or  Brier  Stitch.  9th  row.  Down  from  eighth 
row  three  checks.  Make  stitches  across  two  rows  of  checks. 
Start  at  the  right-hand  edge  and  work  toward  you. 

Loop  Stitch.  10th  row.  With  the  lower  edge  toward 
you,  start  at  the  left  and  finish  edge  with  loop  stitch.  Make 
stitches  two  checks  deep  and  two  checks  apart. 

2 — Needlebook.     (Six  Lessons.) 

Materials :  One  piece  of  art  canvas  five 
inches  by  three  inches,  one  piece  of  flannel 
five  inches  by  three  inches,  one  tapestry 
needle  number  22  or  23;  one  crewel  needle 
number  7;  silkateen. 

Directions:  Loop  stitch  the  edges  of  the 
canvas  cover  and  the  leaves.  Sew  the 
cover  and  leaves  together  with  silkateen 
and  tie  the  ends  into  a  neat  bow.  The 
cover  may  be  ornamented  with  one  of  the 
stitches  learned. 

3 — Holder.     (Four  Lessons.) 


i  I  i  I  I 


Figure  74.  Corner 
of  needlebook 
cover. 


Figure  75.    A  different         Materials:       One    piece    Of    OUting    flan- 
arrangement  of  cor-         .       .        .         ,  ,  ,,  .         , 

ner stitches.  nel  six  inches  by  twenty-four  inches, 

number  7  crewel  needle,  and  silkateen. 
Directions:    Fold    the    strip    of 
outing  flannel  double,  having   the 
two  ends  meet  at  the  middle.     Fold 
again.    Baste  around  the  three  edges. 
Loop   stitch  the  four  edges,   making 
Figure  76.    Loop  at  corner  tne   four   corners  alike.     See  needle- 
Of  holder.  book  cover.     At    one    corner  make 

a   loop   of  two   or   three   threads  of  silkateen,  then  loop 
stitch  over  them. 


SEWTNG  IN  RURAL  SCHOOLS 


253 


1 

1 

I 

i 

1 

1 

1 

i 

1 

i 

!                I 

i 
i 

Figure  77.     Fold  material  on  dotted  lines. 

4 — Hemming  Dust  Cloths,  Towels,  or  Dishcloths.  (Four  Lessons.) 
Material:  A  yard  of  cheesecloth,  for  the  first;  thirty 
inches  of  linen  toweling  or  a  bleached  flour  sack — if  large 
size,  cut  in  two — for  the  second;  one  third  of  a  yard  of  linen 
toweling,  or  a  large  sized  bleached  flour  sack  cut  into  four 
squares  for  the  third. 

Directions:  Turn  one  fourth  inch  hems,  baste  and  fell. 
To  turn  the  hem,  hold  the  material  so  that  the  raw  edge  is 
up,  turn  the  edge  down  about  three  sixteenths  of  an  inch, 
starting  at  the  right  hand  and  working  toward  the  left, 
if  right-handed.  Work  in  the  opposite  direction,  if  left- 
handed.  Turn  a  one  fourth  inch  hem,  holding  the  material 

in  the  same  position, 
and  working  in  the 
same  direction  as 
when  turning  the 
edge.  Baste  and  fell. 

5 — Stockinet  Darning. 
(Six  Lessons.) 

Materials :  Darn 
woolen  hose  with 
yarn  the  same  size 
as  in  the  stocking, 
and  cotton  hose  with 
darning  cotton  the 
same  size  as  that  in 


Figure  78.     Stockinet  prepared  for  darning. 


the  material.     Have  the  pupils  bring  their  own  stockings 


254  RURAL  EDUCATION 

from  home  to  darn.  Use  number  7  crewel  needle  for  med- 
ium weight  cotton  and  cashmere  hose,  number  5  or  6  for 
heavier  weight  yarn  stockings. 

Directions:  Cut  away  worn  material,  making  a  rec- 
tangular hole.  Starting  at  one  corner,  make  one  row  of 
running  stitches  around  the  hole  about  one  eighth  of  an  inch 
from  the  edge.  Draw  up  the  thread,  leaving  the  hole  a 
little  larger  than  natural  size.  Tie  ends  of  darning  cotton 
for  the  child  who  is  beginning  to  darn.  Fill  in  the  warp, 
allowing  two  threads  for  each  row  of  stitches  in  the  stock- 
inet. Care  must  be  taken  to  leave  the  threads  equally 
loose.  Make  running  stitches  three  sixteenths  of  an  inch 
into  the  stockinet  at  each  end  of  the  threads.  When  all 
the  warp  threads  are  supplied,  begin  filling  in  the  woof  by 
weaving  over  and  under  the  warp  threads.  Always  put 
your  needle  over  the  threads  that  the  needle  went  under 
in  the  last  row.  Press  the  needle  down  close  to  the  pre- 
ceding thread  to  make  a  close  darn  and  to  avoid  drawing 
the  woof  threads  too  tight.  Make  running  stitches  into 
the  material  at  the  sides  the  same  as  at  the  ends.  In  a 
good  darn  there  are  raw  edges  on  neither  the  right  nor 
wrong  side,  and  the  edges  are  smooth  and  soft. 

6 — Gingham  Sewing  Bag.     (Eight  or  Nine  Lessons.) 

Materials :  One  piece  of  one  eighth  inch  checked  gingham 
twenty-four  inches  by  eight  inches;  two  pieces  of  tape, 
each  twenty  inches  long  and  one  fourth  of  an  inch  wide. 

Directions:  Make  a  one  eighth  inch  hem  on  each  of 
the  two  long  edges.  At  each  end  make  a  two-inch  hem. 
Fold  double,  crosswise,  right  side  in.  With  all  edges  even, 
baste  through  the  hems  at  the  edges.  Begin  overhanding 
the  edges  together  just  below  the  two-inch  hems.  Fasten 
the  thread  by  sewing  over  three  eighths  of  an  inch  of  the 


SEWING  IN  RURAL  SCHOOLS 


255 


end  of  it.  In  overhanding,  make  your  stitches  shallow, 
close  together,  and  draw  the  thread  quite  tight  as  you 
make  each  stitch.  Fasten  the  thread  at  the  end  of  the 
seam  by  making  four  or  five  stitches  very  close  together. 
Remove  bastings.  Turn  right  side  out,  push  out  corners, 
and  flatten  out  the  overhand  seams.  Measure  down  one 
and  one  half  inches  from  the  top  and  backstitch  or  use 
running  stitch,  with  a  backstitch  every  third  or  fourth 
stitch.  This  makes  a  one  half  inch  casing  for  the  tape. 
Start  one  piece  of  tape  at  one  edge  of  the  bag  and  run  it  all 
the  way  around.  Put  the  other  piece  in,  starting  at  the 
opposite  edge.  Tie  the  two  ends  of  each  tape  into  a  very 
small  bowknot. 

7 — Buttonholes.  (Five  Lessons.) 

Material:  One  piece  of  one  eighth  inch  checked  gingham 
five  inches  by  four  and  three  fourths  inches,  number  50 
thread,  and  number  7  needle. 

Directions:    At  each  end  and  on  one  side  turn  edge 
down  one  fourth  inch.     Divide  the  width  into  thirds,  fold 
the  raw  edge  in,   and  the  turned-in 
edge  over.     Baste  all  four  sides,  keep- 
ing  edges    and    corners    even.      The 
right-hand  portion  of  a  woman's  gar- 
ment  buttons   over  the   left.      Con- 
Figure  79.    First  stitch     sequently,  the  buttonholes  should  be 
worked   in   the  right-hand  portion. 
Cut    horizontally    on    the  thread   of 
the  goods  a  medium-sized  buttonhole 
one  fourth  inch  in  from  the  folded 
edge.     Use  buttonhole  scissors.    Hold 
Figure  so.    Second  stitch    Practice  piece  in  left  hand  so  that  the 
of  buttonhole.          folded    edge    is    to  the   left  and  the 
buttonhole  runs  along  the  length  of  the  finger.     Do  not 


of  buttonhole. 


256 


RURAL  EDUCATION 


Figure  81.  Position  of 
needle  for  button- 
hole stitch. 


pull  edges  far  apart,  because  they  ought  to  touch 
when  the  buttonhole  is  worked.  Insert  needle  one  eighth  of 
an  inch  from  the  near  edge  at  right-hand  end  of  buttonhole. 
Overhand  the  edges  of  the  near  edge 
of  buttonhole;  turn  the  practice  piece 
so  that  the  other  edge  becomes  the 
near  edge.  Overhand  these  edges. 
Do  not  make  the  stitches  close  nor 
draw  the  thread  tight.  It  is  best  not 
to  overhand  at  the  ends  of  button- 
holes. Turn  the  buttonhole  half  way 
around  to  its  original  position.  At  the 
right  hand  end  of  the  buttonhole,  in- 
sert the  needle  one  eighth  of  an  inch 
from  the  near  edge.  Take  the  two 
threads  from  the  eye  of  the  needle  and 
bring  them  from  the  right  toward  the 
left  under  the  point  of  the  needle. 
Draw  the  thread  quite  tight.  Con- 
tinue along  the  near  edge  of  the  button- 
hole, making  the  stitches  close  enough 
so  that  the  threads  barely  touch  one 
another.  The  outer  end  of  the  button- 
hole is  fanned.  It  must  be  carefully 
planned.  One  stitch  extends  from  the 
end  of  the  buttonhole.  Space  the 
other  stitches.  These  are  farther  apart 
in  the  material  and  closer  together 
at  the  corner  of  the  buttonhole  than 
the  stitches  along  the  edge,  but  they 
are  of  the  same  depth.  After  each  stitch, 
draw  the  thread  tight  and  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  buttonhole  stitch.  The  little  knots  or  purls 


Figure  82.  Position  of 
thread  for  button- 
hole stitch. 

_>v      \      \      \      N,       \       > 


Figure  83.     Finished  edge 
of  buttonhole. 


Figure  84.  Rounded 
end,  or  fan,  of 
buttonhole. 


Figure     85.      Pulling 
thread  to  make  fan. 


SEWING  IN  RURAL  SCHOOLS  257 

at  the  end  of  the  buttonhole  must  be  closely  packed,  one 
beside  the  other.  When  working  the  fan,  turn  the  piece 
gradually  around,  so  that  you  always  put  the  needle  in 
directly  toward  you.  Continue,  buttonholing  the  second 
edge  in  the  same  way  as  the  first.  Finish  the  inner  end  of 
the  buttonhole  with  a  bar.  Make  two  or  three  stitches 
the  length  of  the  first  and  last  stitches.  Work  four  or  five 
buttonhole  stitches  over  these  threads,  but  do  not  take  in 
any  of  the  cloth.  Buttonholes  running  lengthwise  in  a 
garment  are  barred  at  both  ends. 

8— Sewing  Apron.     (Twelve  Lessons.) 

Materials:  Use  twelve  and  one  half  or  fifteen  cent 
checked  gingham.  One  piece,  twenty-four  inches  by 
twenty-two  inches,  one  piece,  the  waist  measure  plus  three 
inches  by  two  and  one  half  inches,  number  7  needle,  and 
number  60  or  70  thread  for  basting  and  gathering;  num- 
ber 8  needle  and  number  80  thread  for  hemming,  over- 
handing  and  backstitching;  number  7  crewel  needle  and 
silkateen  for  the  ornamental  stitch. 

Directions :  Make  a  one  eighth  inch  hem  at  each  of  the 
edges  of  the  large  piece;  a  one  and  one  eighth  inch  hem 
across  one  end.  Have  the  three  hems  face  the  same  side. 
On  the  right  side  ornament  the  wide  hem  with  catstitch 
or  feather  stitch.  Hold  the  right  side  of  the  apron  toward 
you,  the  wide  hem  down.  Turn  this  end  of  the  apron  up  to 
form  an  eight-inch  pocket.  Baste  at  sides,  keeping  edges 
of  hems  even,  then  overhand.  Next  remove  basting 
threads,  press  seams  flat,  turn  pocket  and  push  out  cor- 
ners. Ornament  the  hem  above  the  pocket  with  the  same 
stitch  as  used  on  wide  hem,  and  continue  to  the  bottom  of 
the  apron.  Divide  the  pocket  into  three  equal  sections  and 
catstitch  or  feather  stitch  between  them.  Gather  apron 

17 — 


258  RURAL  EDUCATION 

across  the  top.  Baste  to  band,  having 
fullness  hang  straight  from  the  band 
when  worn.  Use  the  backstitch  when 
sewing  it  on  the  band.  This  seam  faces 
Figure  86.  Needle  in  the  wrong  side,  when  the  garment  is 

position  to  make  bar  111  *n 

at  end  of  buttonhole,  made  by  hand.  Turn  the  other  edge 
of  the  band  and  fold  over  this  seam,  just  to  cover  the 
stitches;  turn  in  the  edges  of  band  beyond  the  edges  of  the 
apron,  and  at  the  ends  of  the  band.  Baste.  Overhand 
ends  and  lower  edge  of  the  band  at  each  side  of  the  apron, 
and  fell  the  band  down  across  the  apron.  Ornament  both 
edges  and  ends  of  band.  Work  a  bottonhole  in  the  right- 
hand  end  of  the  band.  Sew  a  button  three  fourths  of  an 
inch  from  the  other  end.  In  sewing  on  a  button  the  stitches 
should  extend  in  the  same  direction  as  the  buttonhole. 
The  thread  may  be  knotted,  if  the  knot  is  put  on  the  right 
side  so  that  the  button  will  cover  it.  Fasten  the  thread 
securely  when  "the  button  is  sewed  on. 

9— Hemmed  Patch.     (Three  Lessons.) 

Materials:  For  the  practice  piece,  or  model,  use  one 
eighth  inch  checked  gingham.  One  piece  six  inches  square, 
one  piece  four  inches  square,  number  7  and  8  needles,  number 
70  and  80  thread. 

.  Directions:  Cut  the  material  between  checks.  Place 
the  small  square  in  center  of  large  square  so  that  the  warp 
threads  run  the  same  direction  in  both  pieces  and  so  that 
white  stripes  fall  on  white  stripes  and  colored  stripes  fall  on 
colored  stripes.  Cut  out  a  square  in  center  of  large  square, 
eight  checks  smaller  than  patch.  Cut  diagonally  through 
one  check  at  each  corner  of  this  hole  and  turn  back  each  of 
four  edges  one  check.  See  illustration  of  hemmed  patch, 
place  patch  over  the  hole,  matching  stripes  and  warp.  Baste 


SEWING  IN  RURAL  SCHOOLS  259 


patch  in  place,  two  checks  in  from  edge. 
Turn  in  edges  of  patch  one  check.  Baste 
near  the  turned-in  edge.  Turn  the  other 
side  toward  you,  and  baste  the  turned-in 
edge  to  the  patch.  Hem  this  edge 
down;  also  hem  around  the  patch  on  the 
Figures?.  Preparation  wrong  side.  Overcast  the  edge  of  model. 


r  hemmed  patch.         Uge 

basting,  the  finer  for  hemming  and  overcasting. 

10  —  Application  of  Hemmed  Patch.     (Three  Lessons.) 

Materials:  A  gingham,  or  calico  apron,  dress,  or  grain 
sack;  same  kind  of  material  for  patch;  needles  and  thread 
of  suitable  size. 

Directions:  Cut  out  the  worn  portions,  making  a  square 
or  rectangular  hole.  If  the  material  is  figured,  striped,  or 
checked,  match  the  design  before  cutting  the  patch.  Allow 
one  half  inch  on  each  of  the  four  edges  of  the  patch.  Proceed 
as  in  the  hemmed  patch. 

11  —  Hemstitched  Towel.     (Five  Lessons.) 

Materials:  One  yard  of  huckaback  or  linen  crash;  num- 
ber 7  needle  and  number  70  thread. 

Directions:  Draw  six  threads  two  and  three  fourths 
inches  from  each  end.  Turn  in  one  fourth  inch,  then  turn 
hem  and  baste  securely,  making  sure  that  edges  are  even  at 
ends  of  hem.  Overhand  ends  of  hems.  Hemstitch  hems. 

12  —  Darning  Three-Cornered  Tear.     (Three  Lessons.) 

Materials:  A  piece  of  light  colored  woolen  material, 
ravelings  of  the  same  material,  or  thread  to  match,  a  number 
7  crewel  needle,  or  a  number  7  needle. 

Directions:  Make  a  three-cornered  cut  in  a  piece  four 
or  five  inches  square.  For  the  first  darn  the  pupils  should 


260  RURAL  EDUCATION 

use  thread.  Cut  the  cloth  on  the  straight  of  the  goods  to 
get  the  ravelings.  Use  the  crewel  needle,  if  using  ravelings. 
The  stitches  making  the  edges  meet  are  not  removed.  Sup- 
ply the  warp  and  woof  threads.  In  crossing  the  cut  edges 


Figure  90. 

.  Figure  88'  Fi*ure  89'  Following  warp  and 

Making  edges    of  three-  Fanned  three-cornered  woof    in    the  three- 

cornered  tear  meet.  darn.  cornered  darn. 

go  over  one  and  under  the  other  alternate  times.  The  corner 
may  be  fanned,  or  the  warp  and  woof  threads  followed.  To 
hold  down  any  ends  of  the  cut  threads,  finish  the  darn  with 
two  rows  of  running  stitches,  following  the  cut  or  tear. 
Make  all  the  stitches  very  short. 

13 — Application  of  Three-Cornered  Darn. 
(Two  or  More  Lessons.) 

Materials:  Garment  with  three-cornered  tear,  ravelings 
to  match,  number  7  crewel  needle. 

Directions:  Darn  as  for  the  three-cornered  darn  in 
Number  12. 

SECOND  DIVISION.     OTHER  YEAR 
1— Stitches.     (Six  Lessons.) 

Materials:  The  same  materials  are  used  as  in  Number 
1,  Second  Division,  One  Year. 

Directions:  Follow  the  directions  given  in  Number  1, 
Second  Division,  One  Year. 

2 — Flannel  Seam  and  Hem.     (Three  Lessons.) 
Materials:     Two  pieces  of  white  flannel  each  eight  inches 
by  two  and  three  fourths  inches,  numbers  7  and  8  needles, 
number  70  thread,  sewing  silk. 


SEWING  IN  RURAL  SCHOOLS 


261 


TYVsT" 


l-igurs   91.     The    flannel 
seam  and  hem. 


Directions:  Place  the  two  pieces 
together  so  that  all  edges  are  even. 
Baste  the  two  pieces  together,  the  long 
way,  one  fourth  inch  from  edge.  Sew 
seam  with  silk,  three  sixteenths  inch 
from  the  edge,  using  the  running  stitch 
with  a  backstitch  for  every  needleful. 
Baste  the  seam  open,  and  catstitch.  See  cut  for  Flannel 
Seam.  Across  one  end  of  this  practice  piece  turn  toward  the 
wrong  side  a  one  and  one  eighth  inch  hem.  Baste  near  the 
folded  edge;  then  baste  hem  near  its  upper  edge.  Catstitch 
hem. 

3 — Flannel  Placket.     (One  Lesson.) 
Materials:  One  piece  of  flannel  eight  inches 
by  five  inches,  number  7  and  8  needles,  number 
70  thread,  and  sewing  silk. 

Directions:  Find  the  middle  of  either  end, 
and  cut  three  and  one  half  inches  into  the 
material,  following  the  thread.  Hold  the  piece 
of  flannel  so  that  the  right  side  is  toward  you 
and  the  opening  at  the  top.  On  the  right-hand 
edge  of  opening  make  a  seven  eighths  inch 
flannel  hem.  On  the  left-hand  edge  make  a  flan- 
nel hem  three  eighths  inch  wide  at  the  top  and 
tapering  to  almost  nothing  at  the  bottom. 
Catstitch  at  the  bottom  of  placket  to  strengthen 
it  and  to  keep  the  right  edge  over  the  left. 

4 — Outing  Flannel  Petticoat.  (Fourteen  Lessons.) 
Materials.  Outing  flannel,  twice  the  desired  length  of 
petticoat  plus  one  third  yard,  one  piece  of  muslin,  the  waist 
measure  plus  two  inches,  by  two  and  one  half  inches,  number 
7  needle,  number  70  thread,  number  7  crewel  needle  and 
silkateen. 


Figure  92. 

Showing  wrong 

side  of  flannel 

placket. 


262  RURAL  EDUCATION 

Directions:  Cut  skirt  by  a  two  or  a  four-gore  skirt  pat- 
tern, allowing  three  inches  for  hem  and  from  two  to  three 
inches  for  shrinkage.  Make  seams  and  hem  as  directed  in 
Number  2  of  this  year's  work.  Cut  a  nine-inch  placket  in 
middle  of  back  gore.  Make  the  placket  as  directed  in 
Number  3  of  this  year's  work.  Tf  a  sewing  machine  is  obtain- 
able, the  seams  and  band  may  be  stitched  on  the  machine, 
but  must  be  done  under  the  teacher's  supervision.  Use  the 
silkateen  for  the  catstitching.  Find  center  front  of  the 
skirt  and  the  band.  Pin  these  two  points  together,  lay  the 
extra  fullness  in  plaits  at  the  back,  and  pin  at  the  seams, 
making  the  opposite  ones  equi-distant  from  the  center 
front.  Baste  the  skirt  together.  This  seam  faces  the  wrong 
side  of  the  petticoat.  Sew  the  skirt  to  the  band,  using  the 
backstitch  and  making  the  seam  one  fourth  inch  wide. 
Remove  the  basting  thread.  With  the  wrong  side  of  the 
band  toward  you,  turn  the  other  edge  of  the  band  down  one 
fourth  inch.  Fold  the  band  toward  the  wrong  side,  just  to 
cover  the  backstitching,  pin  in  place,  turn  in  the  ends  of 
the  band,  at  least  one  fourth  inch,  and  baste  in  place.  Over- 
hand the  ends  of  the  band  and  hem  the  lower  edge  of  the 
band  in  place.  See  Number  6,  for  button  and  buttonholes. 

6 — Buttonhole  Practice.     (Two  Lessons.) 

Materials :  The  same  as  in  Number  7,  Second  Division, 
One  Year. 

Directions:  The  same  as  in  Number  7,  Second  Divi- 
sion, One  Year. 

6 — Making  Buttonholes  in  the  Band  and  Sewing  Button 

on  the  Band  of  the  Outing  Flannel  Petticoat. 

(One  to  Three  Lessons.) 

Materials:  Outing  flannel  petticoat,  number  7  needle, 
number  50  thread,  one  pearl  or  vegetable  ivory  button. 


SEWING  IN  RURAL  SCHOOLS  263 

Directions:  Cut  one  buttonhole  in  the  right  end  of 
the  band  a  little  below  the  middle.  Work  as  directed 
above.  Make  buttonholes  in  the  band  to  correspond 
with  the  buttons  on  the  underwaist  with  which  the  petti- 
coat will  be  worn.  Bar  these  buttonholes  at  both  ends. 
Sew  on  the  button  one  half  inch  from  the  other  end  and 
slightly  below  the  center  of  the  band.  See  last  part  of  Num- 
ber 8,  Second  Division,  One  Year. 

7— Flannel  Patch.     (Two  Lessons.) 

Materials:  Two  pieces  of  flannel,  one  six  inches  square, 
one  four  inches  square,  number  7  needle,  number  70  thread, 
and  sewing  silk. 

Directions:  Cut  a  hole  three  inches  square  in  center 
of  large  square  to  represent  the  worn  portion.  Place  even- 
ly over  the  hole,  having  the  wrong  sides  of  both  pieces 
toward  you.  Baste  near  the  edge  of  the  patch,  and  near 
the  edge  of  the  hole.  Catstitch  patch  in  place  and  around 
the  edge  of  hole. 

8 — Application  of  Flannel  Patch.     (Two  Lessons.) 

Materials:  A  flannel  garment,  a  piece  to  match  for  the 
patch,  sewing  silk  to  match,  number  7  needle,  number  70 
thread,  sewing  silk. 

Directions:  Cut  away  the  worn  portions  making  hole 
rectangular,  if  possible.  Cut  patch  one  inch  larger  each 
way  than  the  hole.  Proceed  as  in  Number  7. 

9 — Three-Cornered  Darn.     (Three  Lessons.) 

Materials:  Same  as  in  Number  12,  Second  Division, 
One  Year. 

Directions:  Same  as  in  Number  12,  Second  Division, 
One  Year, 


264  RURAL  EDUCATION 

10 — Application  of  Three-Cornered  Darn.     (Two  Lessons.) 

Materials:  Same  as  in  Number  13,  Second  Division, 
One  Year. 

Directions:  Same  as  in  Number  13,  Second  Division, 
One  Year. 

11 — Double  Hemstitch  Towel.     (Six  Lessons.) 

Materials:  Same  as  in  Number  11,  Second  Division, 
One  Year.  Or  use  one  and  one  half,  or  one  and  three 
fourths  yards  of  material,  and  make  a  dresser  scarf.  • 

Directions:  Same  as  in  Number  11,  Second  Division, 
One  Year.  Hemstitch  along  the'  other  edge  of  the  space 
where  threads  have  been  drawn.  Take  the  same  threads 
to  a  stitch  as  were  taken  in  opposite  stitch  of  the  single 
hemstitching. 

12— Sewed  Seam.     (One  Lesson.) 

Materials:  Two  pieces  of  gingham,  each  eight  inches 
by  three  inches,  number  7  needles,  number  70  thread. 

Directions:  Baste  these  two  pieces  together,  one 
fourth  inch  from  edge.  Use  the  running  stitch  with  a 
backstitch  for  each  needleful  in  sewing  them  together. 
Remove  the  basting  thread,  trim  the  edges,  if  raveled,  and 
overcast  the  two  edges  together. 

13 — Gingham  Holder.     (Three  Lessons.) 

Materials:  One  piece  of  gingham,  calico  or  percale, 
twelve  and  one  half  inches  by  six  and  one  half  inches, 
four  thicknesses  of  sheet  wadding  five  and  seven  eighths 
inches  square,  number  7  needle,  number  70  thread,  silkateen. 

Directions:  Turn  in  edges  of  piece  of  gingham  one 
fourth  inch.  Fold  double,  crosswise,  crease  and  insert 
wadding.  Baste,  keeping  corners  and  edges  even.  Over- 
hand edges.  Make  two  rows  of  running  stitches,  at  right 


SEWING  IN  RURAL  SCHOOLS  265 

angles  to  one  another  at  the  center,  to  hold  the  wadding 
in  place.  Finish  with  a  loop  at  one  corner,  as  directed  in 
Number  3,  Second  Division,  One  Year,  page  252. 

14 — Gingham  Work  Apron.     (Sixteen  Lessons.) 
Materials:     Apron  gingham,   twice  the  desired  length 
plus  one  half  yard,  number  7  needle,  number  70  thread. 

•        Directions :    Remove  selvages,  cut  off 

a   three-inch  strip  the   entire  length  of 
piece  of  goods.     Cut  from  the  three-inch 


1          strip  the  ties,  each  twenty-seven  inches 


Figure  93.     Diagram   \OIicr .      The  band  is  the  waist  measure 

showing    how  to  cut 

out  apron.  iess    two    inches  by  two  and   one  half 

inches,  and  is  cut  from  the  remaining  portion  of  the  three- 
inch  strip.  Cut  the  large  piece  crosswise  into  equal  parts. 
Cut  one  of  these  pieces,  lengthwise,  into  halves.  The.  large 
piece  is  the  front,  and  the  two  narrow  pieces  are  the  side- 
pieces  of  the  apron.  On  each  edge  of  the  ties  and  one  edge 
of  each  of  the  sidepieces  of  the  apron  make  a  one  eighth 
inch  hem.  Make  sewed  seams  in  apron,  a  three-inch  hem 
at  the  bottom  of  the  apron,  and  a  one-inch  hem  at  one  end 
of  each  tie.  Gather  the  apron  across  the  top  and  gather 
each  tie  at  the  end  not  hemmed.  Sew  apron  and  ties  to  the 
band.  See  Sewing  Apron,  Number  8,  Second  Division,  One 
Year,  page  257. 

THIRD  DIVISION.    ONE  YEAR 
1 — Laundry  Bag.     (Six  Lessons.) 

Materials:  One  and  one  half  yards  of  white  linen 
crash  toweling,  three  yards  of  three  eighths  inch  tape,  num- 
ber 7  needle,  number  70  thread. 

Directions:  Make  a  two-inch  hem  at  each  end  of  the 
piece  of  toweling.  In  the  hem  make  a  row  of  backstitches 
one  half  inch  from  the  hemmed  edge,  thus  forming  a  casin 


266  RURAL  EDUCATION 

for  the  tape.  Fold  double,  crosswise.  With  edges  on  each 
side  even  and  the  hems  even,  baste  together  the  edges  on 
each  side,  beginning  just  below  hem.  Overhand  edges 
together  on  each  side.  Fasten  thread  by  sewing  over  the 
end  of  it.  Remove  the  basting  threads  and  turn  right 
side  out,  push  out  corners,  and  smooth  out  overhand 
seams.  Cut  tape  in  two.  Draw  it  into  casing,  starting 
one  piece  at  each  side  and  bring  each  all  the  way  around. 
Sew  up  the  two  ends  of  each  tape,  making  a  felled  seam. 
See  Number  4,  of  this  year's  work. 

2 — Overhand  Patch.     (Two  Lessons.) 

Materials:  Two  pieces  of  one  eighth  inch  checked 
gingham,  one  six  inches  by  six  inches,  one  four  inches 
by  four  inches,  number  7  needle  and  number  70  thread. 

Directions:  Match  stripes  and  warp 
and  cut  away  the  supposedly  worn  portion 
the  same  as  in  Number  9,  Second  Division, 
One  Year.  Cut  diagonally  through  two 
checks  at  each  corner  of  the  hole.  Turn 


Figure  94    Over-     ^ne  edges  on  each  side  of  the  hole  down 
lnagn  dSaSs  of  °the     two  checks.     Lay  the  piece  thus  prepared  on 


work-  the  desk,  wrong  side  up.     Place  the  patch 

evenly  over  the  hole  matching  stripes  and  warp.  Turn 
the  edges  down  two  checks  on  each  side  of  patch.  (When 
turning  an  edge  always  turn  it  toward  yourself.)  Then 
place  the  patch  in  the  space  it  is  to  fill,  matching  stripes 
and  warp.  Baste  together  the  two  edges  that  touch,  the 
wrong  sides  out,  and  overhand  these  two  edges  together. 
Then  remove  the  basting  thread,  baste  the  two  adjacent 
edges,  overhand,  and  so  continue  around  the  patch.  Press 
the  overhand  seam  as  smooth  as  possible  and  overcast  all 
the  raw  edges. 


SEWING  IN  RURAL  SCHOOLS  267 

3— Application  of  the  Overhand  Patch.     (Three  Lessons.) 

Materials:  A  garment  in  need  of  mending,  a  piece  of 
the  same  material,  number  7  needle,  and  number  70  thread, 
needle  and  thread,  or  silk  suitable  to  use  with  material  in 
garment. 

Directions:  Remove  worn  portion,  making  a  square 
or  rectangular  hole;  fit  the  patch  to  it,  matching  the  design 
and  warp;  and  cut  the  patch  one  half  inch  larger  than  the 
hole  on  each  of  four  edges.  Proceed  as  in  Number  2  of  this 
year's  work. 

4 — Felled  Seam.     (One  Lesson.) 

Materials:  Two  pieces  of  outing  flannel,  eight  inches 
by  three  inches,  number  7  needle  and  number  70  thread. 

Directions:  Place  one  of  the  pieces  on  the  other,  so 
that  the  ends  are  even  and  the  one  long  edge  of  the  under 
piece  extends  three  sixteenths  of  an  inch  beyond  the  edge 
of  the  upper  piece.  Baste  one  half  inch  from  the  edge  farth- 
est out.  Stitch  just  outside  of  the  basting.  Remove  the 
basting  thread.  Turn  in  the  wider  edge  one  fourth  inch; 
then  turn  this  part  of  the  seam  flat  over  the  narrow  edge 
of  seam  and  baste  the  turned-in  edge  to  the  material. 
Stitch  very  close  to  the  turned-in  edge. 

6 — Outing  Flannel  Nightgown.     (Ten  Lessons.) 

Materials:  Three  times  the  required  length  plus  one 
yard  of  outing  flannel,  number  7  needle,  number  70  thread 
and  a  sack  nightgown  pattern. 

Directions:  Cut  out  all  parts,  allowing  for  the  growth 
of  the  individual  and  shrinkage  of  the  material.  Make 
felled  seam  on  the  shoulder,  under  the  arm,  and  in  the 
sleeve,  having  the  back  come  over  the  front.  Hem  fronts 
the  desired  length  for  opening.  Stitch  the  two  fronts 
together  below  opening.  Hem  the  lower  edge  of  sleeve  and 


268  RURAL  EDUCATION 

gown.  Gather  the  sleeves  at  the  top,  and  baste  them  into 
the  armhole.  If  the  sleeves  are  in  correctly,  stitch  them, 
making  a  half-inch  seam.  Remove  the  basting  thread  and 
overcast  the  two  edges  together.  Baste  this  half-inch 
seam  to  the  adjoining  parts  of  the  gown,  stitch  again,  one 
fourth  inch  from  the  overcast  edge.  Cut  one  piece  as  for 
a  lay-down  collar;  sew  it  to  the  gown  around  the  neck, 
with  the  seam  toward  the  right  side.  Remove  the  basting 
thread,  turn  collar  toward  the  right  side  of  gown,  and 
baste"  around  the  neck.  Turn  in  the  edge  of  the  collar  and 
baste  it  to  the  gown.  Stitch. 

6 — Buttonholes.    Review.     (One  Lesson.) 

Materials:  The  materials  are  the  same  as  given  in 
Number  7,  Second  Division,  One  Year. 

Directions:  The  directions  for  making  the  button- 
holes are  the  same  as  given  in  Number  7,  Second  Division, 
One  Year. 

7 — Buttonholes  and  Buttons.     (Three  Lessons.) 

Materials:  Nightgown.  See  Number  5,  of  this  year's 
work,  number  7  needle,  number  50  thread,  and  six  half- 
inch  pearl  buttons. 

Directions:  Work  six  buttonholes  as  directed  in 
Number  7,  Second  Division,  One  Year,  in  the  right  hand 
portion  of  the  front  of  the  nightgown.  Sew  buttons  as 
directed  in  Number  6,  Second  Division,  Other  Year,  on 
the  left  hand  portion  of  the  front  of  the  gown  to  correspond 
with  the  buttonholes.  Page  262. 

8 — Stockinet  Darning.     (Six  Lessons.) 
Materials:     The  materials   are  the   same   as  given   in 

Number  5,  Second  Division,  One  Year. 

Directions:     The  directions  are  the  same  as  given  in 

Number  5,  Second  Division,  One  Year,  page  253. 


SEWING  IN  RURAL  SCHOOLS 


269 


9— Sleevelets.     (Three  Lessons.) 

Materials:  One  half  yard  of  thirty-six  inch  wide  muslin, 
or  India  linen,  needle  and  thread  to  correspond  with  material. 
A  "leg  o'  mutton"  sleeve  pattern  with  but  one  seam. 

Directions:  Cut  sleevelets  sufficiently  large  to  go  on 
over  dress  sleeves  and  to  reach  from  the  wrist  past  the 
elbow,  allowing  for  a  three  fourths  inch  hem  at  the  lower 
edge,  and  a  three  eighths  inch  hem  at  the  upper  edge.  Make 
a  French  seam  in  sewing  the  sleeve,  and  hem  the  upper  and 
lower  edges. 

10 — Hemming  Curved  Edge.     (One  Lesson.) 
Materials:    Two  pieces  of  fine  muslin  or  India  linen, 
seven  inches  by  seven  inches,  number  7  or  8  needle,  number 
70  or  80  thread. 

Directions:  Choosing  any  one  corner  as  the  center, 
with  seven  inches  as  a  radius,  cut  an  arc  of  a  circle.  Turn, 
and  baste  a  hem  less  than  one  eighth  inch  wide.  Hem. 

11 — Cap.     (Four  Lessons.) 

Materials:  One  half  yard  of  fine  muslin  or  India  linen, 
number  7  needle,  number  70  thread,  number  9  needle,  and 
number  90  thread,  and  one  piece  of  elastic  to  fit  head. 

Directions:  Cut  a  circle  eighteen  inches  in  diameter 
from  the  muslin.  To  cut  a  true  bias  fold  the  material  so 
that  the  warp  threads  fall  on  the  woof  threads, 
then  cut  on  the  fold.  Cut  one  and  one  half 
yards  of  bias  strips  seven  eighths  of  an  inch 
wide.  Make  a  one  eighth  inch  hem  around 
the  cap.  Turn  each  edge  of  the  bias  strip  one 
eighth  inch  under  and  baste  it  at  each  edge  two 
inches  from  the  edge,  on  the  wrong  side  of  the 
cap.  Cut  off  the  extra  amount  of  the  bias  strip, 
allow  enough  with  which  to  hem  each  end  and 
stitch  bias  strip  at  each  edge  to  the  cap. 


Figure  95. 
Folding    the 
material     for 
a  true  bias. 


270  RURAL  EDUCATION 

12 — Application  of  Patches  and  Darns.     (Two  to  Six  Lessons.) 

Materials:  See  Number  5,  Number  10  and  Number 
13,  Second  Division,  One  Year;  Number  8,  Second  Divi- 
sion, Other  Year;  and  Number  3,  Third  Division,  One  Year. 

Directions:  For  directions  see  the  same  numbers  as 
for  the  materials. 

13— Tray  Cloth  or  Doilie.     (Four  Lessons.) 

Materials:  One  piece  of  medium  fine  linen  of  the 
desired  size,  number  7  needle,  number  70  thread. 

Directions:     Draw  six  threads  one  and  one  half  inches 
from  each  edge.     See  cut  of  Mitre  Number  5,  Third  Divi- 
sion, Other  Year.     Baste  hems  and  double    hemstitch  as 
in  Number  11,  Second  Division,  Other  Year,  page  264. 
14 — Buttonholes.     (Four  Lessons.) 

Materials:  Garments  brought  from  home,  needle  and 
thread  of  suitable  sizes,  the  thread  to  match  the  color  of 
the  material. 

Directions:  For  directions  see  Number  7,  Second  Divi- 
sion, One  Year,  page  255. 

THIRD  DIVISION.    OTHER  YEAR 
1 — French  and  Felled  Seams.     (Two  Lessons.) 

Materials:  Three  pieces  of  muslin  or  gingham,  each 
eight  inches  by  three  inches,  numbers  7  and  8  needles, 
numbers  70  and  80  thread. 

Directions:  For  the  French  seam,  baste  the  long  edges 
of  two  pieces  one  fourth  inch  from  the  edge.  Sew  one 
eighth  inch  from  the  edge.  Remove  the  basting  thread, 
and  trim  the  edges  slightly,  to  remove  all  frayed  edges. 
Turn  the  other  side  of  material  toward  you  and  baste  the 
seam  just  made  within  the  seam.  Stitch  this  seam  one 
eighth  inch  from  edge.  For  the  felled  seam,  see  directions 
for  Number  4,  Third  Division,  One  Year,  page  267.  Make 
it  one  eighth  of  an  inch  wide. 


SEWING  IN  RURAL  SCHOOLS  211 

2— Long  Sleeved  Aprons.     (Six  Lessons.) 

Materials:  Three  times  the  length  from  shoulder  to 
bottom  of  skirt  plus  one  yard  of  gingham,  or  print.  If 
percale  is  used,  add  one  half  yard  to  three  times  the  re- 
quired length,  number  7  needle,  and  number  70  thread  and 
a  long  sleeved  apron  pattern  with  straight  lines. 

Directions:  Cut  out  apron,  allowing  for  shrinkage  of 
cloth  and  growth  of  child.  Make  French  seams,  remem- 
bering that  the  first  time  they  are  basted  toward  the  right 
side  of  the  material.  Sew  in  the  sleeves;  finish  the  neck 
and  bottom  the  same  as  the  nightgown,  when  the  two 
edges  in  the  back  have  been  hemmed.  Make  two  pockets, 
each  seven  inches  by  six  inches.  Sew  one  pocket  on  each 
side  of  the  front  of  the  apron. 

3 — Work  Buttonholes  in  Apron.     (Four  Lessons.) 
Materials:    Apron,  number  7  needles,  number  50  thread, 

eight  one  half  inch  pearl  buttons. 

Directions:    See  Number  7,  Second  Division,  .One  Year, 

and  Number  7,  Third  Division,  One  Year. 

4 — Marguerite.     (Seven  Lessons.) 

Materials:  One  yard  of  muslin,  two  yards  of  lace  with 
beading,  one  piece  of  linen  tape  three  eighths  inch  wide, 
number  7  and  8  needles,  number  70  and  90  thread,  and 
corset  cover  pattern. 

Directions:  In  cutting  out  the  material  remember  the 
marguerite  slips  on  over  the  head,  and  that  it  is  best  not  to 
cut  it  very  low  around  the  neck.  Make  a  felled  seam  on 
the  shoulder,  a  French  seam  under  the  arm,  and  a  one 
eighth  inch  hem  at  the  bottom,  around  the  neck,  and  at  the 
armholes.  Make  a  felled  seam  when  joining  the  lace.  Sew 
the  lace  around  the  neck  and  armholes  with  the  overhand 
stitch.  Full  the  lace  slightly  under  the  arm  in  front  of  the 


272  RURAL  EDUCATION 

under-arm  seam.  Have  the  right  sides  of  the  marguerite 
and  of  the  lace  face  each  other,  with  the  lace  on  the  thumb 
side,  the  side  nearest  you.  Prepare  a  bias  fold  as  directed 
in  Number  9,  Third  Division,  One  Year,  to  fit  across  the 
back  at  the  waistline.  Baste  in  place  and  stitch.  Draw 
a  piece  of  tape  long  enough  to  tie  around  the  waist  through 
the  casing  formed  by  the  bias  fold.  Draw  the  tape  into  the 
beading  and  tie. 

5 — French  Hem  and  Mitre.     (One  Lesson.) 
Materials:     A  seven-inch  square  of  medium  fine  linen, 
numbers  7  and  8  needles,  numbers  70  and  80  thread,  and  a 
four-inch  square  of  stiff  paper. 

Directions:  From  one  corner  of  the  paper 
measure  five  eighths  of  an  inch  on  each  side, 
connect  these  two  points  with  a  straight  line, 
and  cut  along  this  line.  Cut  one  corner  of  square 
by  this  pattern.  Turn  each  of  the  adjoining 


Figure  96. 

Mitered  hem',    edges  one  eighth  of  an  inch,  then  a  one  fourth 

inch  hem.     Baste  near  the  turned-in  edge.    Fold 

the  hem  back  on  one  side  and  overhand  the  two  folded 

edges.     In  a  similar  manner  hem  the  other  side  adjacent  to 

the  mitred  corner.     Hem  the  mitre  at  the  corner. 

6— Application  of  French  Hem.     (Six  Lessons.) 

Materials:  Two  napkins  brought  from  home,  numbers 
7  and  8  needles,  and  numbers  70  and  80  thread. 

Directions:  Napkins  have  selvages  on  two  edges.  Cut 
the  other  two  edges  straight  by  the  thread.  Make  a  one 
fourth  inch  French  hem  at  each  of  these  two  edges. 

7 — Gingham  Underskirt.     (Eight  Lessons.) 

Materials:  Twice  the  skirt  length  plus  three  fourths  of 
a  yard  of  striped  gingham,  number  7  needle,  numbers  70 


SEWING  IN  RURAL  SCHOOLS  273 

and  50  thread,  one  medium-sized  pearl  button,  and  a  plain 
five-gore  skirt  pattern. 

Directions:  Cut  the  gores  two  inches  shorter  than  the 
desired  length,  three  pieces  across  the  material,  each  five 
and  a  half  inches  deep,  for  the  ruffle,  one  piece,  the  waist 
measure  plus  two  inches  by  two  and  a  half  inches  for  the 
band,  one  piece  twenty  inches  by  two  and  a  half  inches  for 
the  extension  placket,  and  enough  bias  strips  to  face  edge 
of  ruffle  and  to  finish  seam  at  upper  edge  of  ruffle.  Make 
French  seams  in  skirt,  leave  a  nine  and  a  half  inch  placket 
at  the  top  of  the  back  seam,  join  with  sewed  seams  the  three 
pieces  of  the  ruffle  and  the  bias  strips.  To  face  one  edge 
of  the  ruffle  with  the  bias  strip,  put  the  right  side  of  bias  to 
the  wrong  side  of  the  ruffle,  having  their  edges  even,  baste 
and  stitch  three  sixteenths  of  an  inch  from  edge.  Remove 
the  basting  thread,  turn  the  bias  strip  toward  the  right  side 
of  ruffle,  baste  at  the  edge,  and  turn  under  the  upper  edge 
of  the  bias  strip.  Baste  and  sew  at  the  upper  edge.  Divide 
the  ruffle  into  quarters  and  notch  it;  then  gather  it  at 
its  upper  edge.  Divide  the  lower  edge  of  the  skirt  into 
quarters,  starting  at  center  back.  Pin  ruffle  and  skirt  to- 
gether at  notches,  the  wrong  sides  together.  Baste  the  two, 
arranging  the  gathers  evenly.  Then  baste  the  bias  strip  to 
the  ruffle  side  of  the  seam  j  ust  basted,  having  the  right  side 
of  the  bias  strip  face  the  ruffle.  Stitch,  and  remove  the 
basting  threads.  Turn  the  bias  over  the  seam  and  baste 
at  its  lower  edge.  Finish  as  at  lower  edge  of  the  ruffle.  To 
make  the  extension  placket,  place  the  piece  cut  for  it  on  the 
wrong  side  of  the  skirt;  starting  at  the  upper  end  of  the  right- 
hand  portion  of  the  placket  opening,  baste  in  place;  taking 
particular  care  at  the  lower  end  of  the  placket,  sew;  remove 
the  basting  thread;  turn  the  other  edge  one  fourth  of  an 
inch  and  bring  it  over  the  seam  to  just  cover  the  stitches. 

18 — 


274  RURAL  EDUCATION 

Baste,  sew,  and  remove  basting  thread.  To  sew  the  skirt 
to  the  band,  first  notch  the  middle  front  of  the  skirt. 
Then  notch  the  band  one  and  one  fourth  inches  to  one  side 
of  the  middle.  Place  the  band  on  the  wrong  side  of  the 
skirt.  Pin  the  notches  together,  with  the  longer  portion 
toward  the  left  side  of  the  skirt.  At  the  back  pin  the  skirt 
to  the  band,  the  left  portion  of  placket  extended,  and  the 
right  portion  turned  back.  Dispose  of  the  extra  fullness 
by  gathering  or  laying  it  in  plaits,  whichever  way  is  the 
most  desirable.  Remember  that  the  skirt  must  hang  straight 
from  the  band.  Baste,  and  stitch  the  skirt  to  the  band. 
Continue  as  directed  in  Number  4,  Second  Division,  Other 
Year.  Work  a  buttonhole  in  the  right-hand  end  of  the 
band  and  sew  the  button  on  the  band  at  the  left-hand  end. 
Have  the  ends  of  the  band  overlap  the  width  of  the  exten- 
sion placket  one  inch. 

8— Muslin  Nightgown.     (Eight  Lessons.) 

Materials:  Twice  the  length  from  the  shoulder,  at  the 
neck,  to  the  floor,  plus  one  half  yard  of  thirty-six  inch  mus- 
lin, two  yards  of  lace  with  beading,  one  piece  of  one  fourth 
inch  linen  tape.  Numbers  7  and  8  needles,  numbers  70  and 
80  thread,  and  a  nightgown  pattern. 

Directions:  The  pattern  used  in  Number  5,  Third 
Division,  One  Year,  could  be  used,  or  a  nightgown  pattern 
with  butterfly  sleeves.  One  third  yard  less  material  is  re- 
quired for  the  pattern  with  butterfly  sleeves.  If  the  pattern 
mentioned  first  is  used,  allow  two  inches  at  the  center  for 
fullness.  Add  three  inches  for  hem  to  the  required  length. 
If  it  is  necessary  to  piece  the  front  on  each  side  at  the  bot- 
tom, make  sewed  seams.  (Make  felled  seams  on  the  shoulder 
and  French  seams  under  the  arm  and  in  the  sleeve.)  Make 
a  three-inch  hem  at  the  bottom,  and  a  one  eighth  inch  hem 


SEWING  IN  RURAL  SCHOOLS  275 

around  the  neck  and  at  the  lower  edge  of  sleeves  which  are 
of  elbow  length.  Gather  the  sleeves  at  the  top.  Baste 
sleeves  into  armholes,  and  fit  them.  If  the  sleeves  fit  prop- 
erly, sew  them,  making  a  three  eighths  inch  seam.  Over- 
cast the  raw  edges,  putting  a  stitch  through  each  of  the 
gathers.  Sew  on  the  lace  as  directed  in  Number  4  of  this 
year's  work.  There  are,  of  course,  no  separate  sleeves,  if 
the  butterfly  pattern  is  used. 

9 — Sofa  Cushion  Cover.     (Four  Lessons.) 
Materials:    Two  pieces  of  linen  or  cretone  twenty-two 
inches  by  eighteen  inches,  two  pieces  each  twenty-two  inches 
by  two  and  a  half  inches,  thread  to  match,  number  7  needle, 
number  70  thread,  and  four  clasps. 

Directions:  Face,  with  the  narrow  strips,  one  edge  of 
each  of  the  large  pieces.  Place  the  two  large  pieces  with  the 
faced  edges  together  and  the  right  sides  so  as  to  face  each 
other.  Baste  and  sew  one  fourth  inch  from  the  edge  at 
the  ends  and  the  side  not  faced.  Remove  basting  threads, 
trim  slightly  the  two  corners  just  stitched,  turn,  and  push 
out  the  corners.  Baste  near  the  edge  of  the  three  stitched 
sides;  baste  a  second  time  two  and  one  eighth  inches  from 
the  edge;  and  stitch  two  inches  from  the  edge.  Sew  the 
clasps  near  the  hemmed  edges  of  the  facings  at  the  opening. 
The  top  may  be  ornamented  with  a  stenciled  design,  crocheted 
motifs,  or  embroidery,  if  cover  is  of  plain  material. 

HOME  PROJECTS 

To  alter  patterns:  A  plain  gored  skirt  pattern,  if  it 
is  too  long,  may  be  shortened  by  laying  a  plait  across  each 
gore  at  half  the  distance  down  from  the  top.  Have  the 
edges  even  at  the  front  or  the  part  of  the  pattern  that  will 
come  on  the  straight  of  the  goods.  If  the  pattern  is  too 
large  around  the  hips,  lay  equal  sized  plaits  lengthwise 


276  RURAL  EDUCATION 

through  the  middle  of  each  gore.  Sleeve  patterns  are  re- 
duced in  a  similar  manner.  If  a  plain  waist  pattern  is  "long 
waisted,"  determine  whether  the  extra  length  is  above  or 
below  the  bust  line  or  both.  Shorten  the  pattern  where 
it  is  too  long.  If  a  pattern  is  too  wide  across  the  shoulder, 
make  a  lengthwise  plait  through  the  middle  of  that  por- 
tion, and,  if  too  wide  under  the  arm,  do  the  same  there. 
If  a  pattern  is  too  narrow  or  too  short,  determine  where  to 
enlarge.  See  above  how  to  reduce.  Cut  the  pattern  and 
insert  a  strip  of  paper  of  the  required  width. 

Wash  goods  of  linen  or  cotton  and  woolen  goods  should 
be  shrunk  before  making  up.  A  tablespoonful  of  salt  added 
to  each  quart  of  lukewarm  water  used  when  shrinking 
the  wash  goods  sets  the  color.  When  pressing  the  mater- 
ial keep  the  edges  straight. 

If  the  material  is  figured,  checked  or  plaid,  decide  which 
is  up  and  which  is  down  and  cut  all  parts  the  same  way. 

1 — A  Pair  of  Drawers 

Materials:  Muslin,  twice  the  length  from  the  waist- 
line to  the  bent  knee  plus  six  inches,  two  and  a  half  yards  of 
five-inch  or  six-inch  embroidery,  thread  and  needles  of  suit- 
able sizes,  and  a  good  pattern. 

Directions:  Tear  off  a  strip  of  the  material  at  one  end 
to  straighten  it,  and  pull  the  goods  straight,  if  it  seems 
uneven.  Turn  up  the  lower  edge  of  the  pattern  five  or  six 
inches  the  width  of  the  embroidery.  Place  pattern  of  goods 
with  its  lower  edge  on  the  straight  end  of  the  cloth  and  cut 
one  part.  To  cut  the  corresponding  part,  use  the  piece 
just  cut,  placing  the  woof  threads  in  it  on  the  woof  threads 
of  the  larger  piece  of  cloth.  Cut  two  pieces,  one  for  the 
placket  and  one  for  the  band  the  same  as  in  Number  7, 
Third  Division,  Other  Year.  When  sewing  the  (short) 


SEWING  IN  RURAL  SCHOOLS  277 

seam  in  each  of  the  two  large  portions,  make  a  felled  seam. 
Join  with  a  felled  seam  the  two  portions,  which  should  be 
pairs,  having  the  two  short  seams  meet. 

If  the  placket  is  desired  at  the  back,  leave  the  length  of 
it  when  sewing  this  seam.  Or,  the  placket  may  be  made  at 
either  side.  Make  the  placket  and  sew  skirt  to  the  band 
as  in  Number  7,  Third  Division,  Other  Year.  Turn  up  the 
lower  edge  five  eighths  of  an  inch  toward  the  wrong  side. 
Baste  near  folded  edge.  Stitch,  making  a  three  sixteenths 
inch  tuck.  Cut  the  embroidery  into  two  equal  pieces,  trim 
upper  edge,  if  it  is  uneven.  Match  the  pattern  and  join 
with  a  sewed  seam.  For  convenience,  later,  divide  each 
flounce  into  a  fourth,  starting  at  the  seam,  marking  the 
upper  edges  with  a  notch  or  pin.  Gather  each  flounce. 
Divide  the  lower  edges  of  drawers  into  fourths,  starting  at 
the  seam.  Pin  a  flounce  to  the  raw  edge  of  each  portion, 
placing  seams  together,  also  wrong  sides,  and  notches. 
Baste,  arranging  gathers  uniformly,  stitch  each  three  six- 
teenths of  an  inch  from  edge  and  remove  basting  threads. 
Turn  the  seam  up  and  baste  the  tuck  down  over  it  and 
baste  the  tuck  in  place.  Stitch  in  the  very  edge  of  the 
tuck.  Finish  the  band  with  a  button  and  buttonhole. 

2— A  Wash  Dress 

Materials:  Select  material  that  will  launder  nicely  and 
that  is  suitable  to  the  wear  you  wish  to  give  the  dress  and 
of  becoming  color,  the  correct  size  of  a  simple  pattern,  of 
suitable  style  for  a  wash  dress,  thread  to  match  the  ma- 
terial, and  buttons  or  No.  2  hooks  and  eyes. 

Directions:  Styles  change  so  frequently  that  but  few 
general  directions  can  be  given.  Study  and  follow  direc- 
tions with  the  pattern.  Fit  pattern,  alter  if  necessary,  and 
lay  all  parts  of  it  on  the  goods  before  beginning  to  cut.  It 


278  RURAL  EDUCATION 

is  sometimes  necessary  to  rearrange  the  parts  of  the  pat- 
tern in  order  to  cut  goods  economically.  Make  French  or 
sewed  seams  in  skirt  depending  on  the  material,  an  exten- 
sion placket  as  in  Number  7,  Third  Division,  Other  Year. 
Baste  the  skirt  to  the  band.  See  that  the  seams  in  the 
skirt  hang  straight,  that  it  does  not  pull  anywhere  and  that 
it  is  even  at  the  bottom.  Finish  the  band  neatly,  at  the 
ends,  being  careful  to  make  the  two  edges  of  the  placket  the 
same  length.  When  turning  the  hem,  dispose  of  the  full- 
ness of  its  upper  edge  by  laying  a  small  plait  in  the  part 
of  each  gore  that  is  on  a  bias.  If  one  plait  disposes  of  full- 
ness but  makes  the  skirt  longer  at  that  place,  make  two  a 
small  distance  apart.  The  lower  edge  of  a  plain  gored 
skirt  is  uniformly  curved,  if  the  hem  is  turned  correctly  and 
no  unusual  alterations  have  been  made  to  make  it  fit. 
Finish  the  waist  neatly  at  the  neck,  the  bottom,  the  lower 
edge  of  the  sleeves,  and  where  it  fastens.  When  putting 
in  the  fasteners,  whether  it  be  buttons  and  buttonholes,  or 
hooks  and  eyes,  make  sure  that  they  will  fulfill  their  pur- 
pose of  keeping  the  garment  properly  adjusted.  If  the 
dress  require  a  belt  or  girdle,  sew  fasteners  in  it. 

REFERENCES  FOR  SEWING 

Books :  How  We  Are  Clothed,  Chamberlain ;  Clothing  and  Other 
Textiles,  Carpenter;  Great  American  Industries,  Manufactories,  Roch- 
eleau;  Shelter  and  Clothing,  Kinne  and  Cooley;  Textiles,  Dooley; 
Textiles,  Woolman  and  McGowan;  Sewing  Tablet  Series,  Blair. 

Farmers'  Bulletins,  Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C. : 
Flax  for  Seed  and  Fiber,  No.  27;  Silkworm  Culture,  No.  165;  Angora 
Goat,  No.  137;  Sea  Island  Cotton,  No.  302. 

Minnesota  Farmers'  Library:  Industrial  Contests  for  Boys  and 
Girls,  No.  3;  Flax  Growing,  No.  27;  Rural  School  Agriculture,  No.  2, 
Revised. 


CHAPTER  XIX 
THE  HOT  LUNCH 

So  many  ridiculous  questions  have  been  asked  and 
statements  made  regarding  the  hot  lunches  served  in  schools 
that  it  is  well  to  ask,  What  is  the  "hot  lunch  idea"?  In  the 
first  place  it  is  not  serving  lunches  between  meals  during 
the  forenoon  and  afternoon  sessions  of  school,  as  some  have 
imagined.  Neither  is  it  giving  a  course  in  domestic  science. 
The  hot  lunch  idea  is  a  simple  question  of  practical  hy- 
giene\  Farmers  are  careful  of  their  feed  for  cows,  and 
have  heaters  to  warm  the  water  for  them  to  drink  in  cold 
weather,  moved  by  no  other  consideration  than  financial 
profit.  They  know  that  the  cows  produce  more  butter  fat 
under  these  conditions.  Even  heaters  for  cooking  the  hog 
feed  in  winter  are  employed  as  a  matter  of  business  econ- 
omy. And  yet  some  of  these  same  thrifty  farmers  will 
let  their  children  walk  two  or  three  miles  through  snow  and 
cold  to  school,  eat  a  frozen  lunch  at  noon,  unless  by  good 
fortune  it  has  thawed  out,  and  trudge  home  again  at  night 
in  time  to  do  the  chores  before  supper. 

The  primary  purpose  of  serving  something  hot  at  noon 
to  those  who  carry  lunches  is,  then,  simply  one  of  efficiency. 
Like  the  food  for  the  cattle  and  hogs,  the  hot  lunch  has 
been  found  profitable,  profitable  from  the  standpoint  of 
educational  efficiency  as  well  as  physical  betterment.  The 
boy  or  girl  who  eats  only  a  cold  lunch  day  after  day  is  not 
physically  or  mentally  capable  of  doing  the  work  that  may 
be  expected  of  them. 

Other  advantages  of  the  hot  lunch  plan  are  that  the 
older  students  have  an  opportunity  to  do  some  practical 
plain  cooking  occasionally,  without  interfering  with  their 

279 


280  RURAL  EDUCATION 

school  work.  The  assuming  of  responsibility  for  preparing 
the  hot  dish  to  be  served,  the  practice  of  serving,  table 
etiquette,  the  brief  study  of  food  principles,  are  all  very 
valuable  training.  It  should  not  be  thought  for  a  moment 
that  the  whole  meal  is  prepared  at  school.  The  children 
bring  their  lunches  from  home.  One  hot  dish  is  prepared 
for  all  the  students  each  day  during  the  cold  weather. 
Even  if  this  were  nothing  but  a  hot  drink  of  milk  or  cocoa, 
it  would  be  well  worth  while,  but  it  is  entirely  unnecessary 
to  limit  the  dishes  that  can  be  served  to  a  few  of  which  the 
children  will  soon  tire.  The  kinds  of  prepared  food  which 
one  can  carry  in  a  lunch  basket  are  limited.  The  hot  dish 
gives  variety  and  increases  the  nutritive  value  of  the  lunch. 

The  equipment  for  serving  hot  lunches  need  not  be 
extensive.  A  cupboard  with  doors,  made  by  the  older 
boys  of  the  school,  provides  a  place  for  dishes,  cooking 
utensils  and  supplies.  The  one  shown  in  the  picture  is 
similar  to  several  others  that  were  made  out  of  a  dry  goods 
box.  Shelves  were  put  in  and  curtains  hung  over  the 
front.  Doors  would  be  more  sanitary  than  curtains,  how- 
ever. Each  child  is  asked  to  bring  a  cup,  saucer,  fork  and 
spoon.  These  remain  during  the  hot  lunch  season,  from 
November  to  April,  when  the  weather  is  unfit  to  eat  out- 
side. It  is  also  desirable,  but  not  necessary,  that  each 
bring  two  napkins — one  to  be  used  as  a  table  cloth  on  the 
desk.  Paper  napkins  may  be  purchased  out  of  a  general 
fund,  if  desirable.  Others  should  be  washed  as  often  as 
necessary  or  exchanged  for  clean  ones  at  home.  Coffee 
cans  or  fruit  jars  can  be  obtained  in  which  to  keep  the 
staple  supplies,  as  flour,  sugar,  salt,  oatmeal,  cornmeal, 
rice,  etc. 

The  question  of  supplies  is  often  raised.  Where  do  they 
get  the  materials  used  by  the  students?  Sometimes  a  levy 


THE  HOT  LUNCH  281 

of  ten  cents  each  is  made  for  the  purchase  of  groceries.  We 
have  found  a  more  satisfactory  way  in  which  the  students 
bring  practically  all  the  supplies  from  home.  This  is  not 
difficult,  as  they  can  furnish  large  or  small  quantities — a 
quart  of  milk  or  one  cupful,  one  potato  or  half  a  dozen.  If 
a  soup  or  some  dish  requiring  milk  is  made,  it  is  well  to  let 
one  family  furnish  all  that  is  needed  for  that  day.  It  will 
not  bring  anything  more  until  its  turn  comes  again.  This 
matter  can  easily  be  regulated  by  the  teacher,  and  a  record 
kept.  If  baked  potatoes  were  the  dish  to  be  served,  each 
could  pick  out  his  own  potato  and  bring  it  to  school  the 
day  it  is  to  be  used.  A  few  cents  each  will  provide  the 
general  supplies  referred  to  above,  or  even  they  may  be 
brought  from  the  homes.  There  will  be  no  difficulty  in 
getting  all  the  supplies,  if  the  teacher  is  tactful  and  has 
the  co-operation  of  the  mothers.  There  may  be  home  con- 
ditions in  the  community  where  it  would  be  wise  to  have 
the  children  bring  only  vegetables.  Other  families  can 
furnish  the  milk,  butter,  eggs,  meal,  etc.  Plans  should  be 
made  and  the  dish  selected  two  or  three  days  before  it  is  to 
be  served.  As  far  as  possible  let  the  students  make  the 
selections.  Two  or  three  can  be  suggested  by  the  teacher 
and  one  chosen.  Change  enough  should  be  made  to  vary 
the  nutrients  from  day  to  day. 

Housekeepers,  or  monitors,  should  be  selected  from 
the  older  boys  and  girls  to  serve  for  one  week.  Two  are 
enough  at  once.  In  case  the  school  is  large,  one  or  two 
more  may  be  selected  to  help  serve  and  to  wash  the  dishes. 
These  persons  are  responsible,  but  the  teacher  should 
assist  and  encourage  them.  The  necessary  preparations 
are  made  in  the  morning  before  school  and  at  recess.  One 
of  the  housekeepers  can  quietly  get  up  and  start  the  stove 
at  whatever  time  the  dish  needs  to  be  put  on  to  have  it 


282  RURAL  EDUCATION 

ready  by  noon.  The  rest  of  the  students  will  soon  pay  no 
more  attention  to  this  than  to  any  other  schoolroom  ac- 
tivity to  which  they  are  accustomed.  Little,  if  any,  time 
needs  to  be  taken  to  watch  the  heating  or  cooking  process. 

Serving  the  hot  dish  is  the  most  interesting  part  of  the 
preparation.  The  children  are  always  happy  over  it.  As 
soon  as  dismissal  is  over,  the  pupils  should  take  their  seats 
for  lunch.  The  monitors  should  then  pass  the  napkins, 
the  spoons  or  forks,  and  the  dinner  pails  from  home. 
The  hot  dish  made  in  school  is  then  served  to  each,  and 
eaten  with  the  lunch  from  the  pails.  The  teacher  should 
always  sit  and  eat  with  the  pupils.  Encourage  pleasant 
conversation.  Sometimes  she  could  have  them  discuss 
what  they  have  for  lunch  and  its  uses.  Nutrition,  balanced 
diets,  sanitation,  good  health,  games  for  the  playground, 
are  suggestive  topics  for  conversation.  Table  manners 
such  as  found  in  the  best  homes  should  prevail.  At  least 
twenty  minutes  should  be  used  in  eating  the  noon  day 
lunch,  and,  if  persons  leave  before  that  time,  they  should 
ask  to  be  excused,  as  at  any  other  table.  Lunch  plans  for 
the  next  day  are  made.  The  lessons  to  be  learned  from 
these  sources  are  well  worth  the  little  extra  work  required 
to  conduct  the  hot  lunches. 

Dishwashing  follows  the  lunch,  and  is  done  by  the 
housekeepers,  changing  each  week.  The  water  should  be 
heated  for  this  while  the  lunch  is  being  eaten.  The 
monitors  remove  the  dishes,  but  each  student  is  responsible 
for  the  crumbs  near  his  desk.  The  dishes  are  washed, 
rinsed,  wiped  and  put  in  their  proper  places  in  the  cup- 
board. See  that  the  mixing  dishes  are  kept  very  clean. 
As  soon  as  students  get  used  to  the  routine  of  preparing, 
serving,  and  dishwashing,  very  little  time  will  be  consumed 
in  these  tasks.  The  boys  should  take  their  turns  as  well  as 


THE  HOT  LUNCH  283 

the  girls.  The  experience  will  be  valuable  to  them  also. 
The  equipment  here  given  is  that  which  was  furnished 
each  of  our  Associated  Schools.  The  two-burner  kerosene 
stoves  cost  $5.95  each.  The  ovens,  about  $2.00  each,  and 
the  list  of  utensils  about  $1.50.  Even  this  somewhat  elab- 
orate equipment  cost  under  ten  dollars  and  will  last  for 
years.  The  stoves  and  equipment  are  used  at  farmers' 
club  meetings,  institutes,  and  other  social  gatherings  at  the 
school.  Any  live  school  can  raise  enough  money  to  pur- 
chase the  outfit  if  it  is  not  furnished  by  the  district. 

THE  EQUIPMENT 

1  double  burner  blue  flame  kero-      1  cover  to  fit. 

sene  stove.  1  wooden    mixing    spoon,     (long 
single  burner  oven.  handle). 

12-quart  dish  pan.  1  ladle, 

draining  pan.  1  table  spoon  (metal), 

set  of  six  muffin  tins.  1  teaspoon  (metal), 
large  three-pint  mixing  bowl.        1  kitchen  knife, 

small  bowl.  1  fork, 

cup.     (St.  Dennis.)  1  Dover  egg  beater, 

dinner  plate.  1  strainer. 

2  pie  tins  (1  large,  1  small.)  1  paring  knife. 

2  asbestos  mats.  1  graduated  measuring  cup. 

1  eight-quart  granite  kettle.  1  eight-inch  omelet  pan  or  skillet. 

GENERAL  DIRECTIONS 

Use  level  measures  for  both  dry  and  liquid  materials. 
If  you  wish  to  measure  a  spoonful  of  flour,  dip  a  spoon  into 
the  flour  and  level  off  with  the  back  of  a  case  knife.  Start- 
ing at  the  handle,  push  the  surplus  off  as  the  knife  moves 
toward  the  end  of  the  spoon.  Fill  a  cup  or  large  measure 
by  lifting  the  material  into  it  with  a  spoon,  or  dish,  then 
level  off  with  a  case  knife.  Filling  a  measure  by  dipping  it 
into  the  dry  material  causes  the  material  to  pack.  Always 
look  up  the  table  of  measures  when  using  a  recipe  from  a 
new  book.  Abbreviations,  measures  and  weights  that  will 
be  used  in  carrying  out  the  hot  lunch  idea  are  given. 


284  RURAL  EDUCATION 

ABBREVIATIONS 

t  =  teaspoonful ;  T  =  tablespoonful ;  c  =  cupful ;  pt.  =  pint; 
qt.  =  quart;  Ib.  =  pound. 

MEASURES 

4  teaspoonfuls  make  1  tablespoonful;  16  tablespoonfuls  makes  1 
cupful;  12  tablespoonfuls  of  dry  materials,  as  rice  and  rolled  oats, 
make  1  cupful;  2  cupfuls  make  one  pint;  2  pints  make  1  quart;  4  quarts 
make  1  gallon. 

SAUCES  AND  THICKENING  FOR  CREAM  SOUPS 

Thin  Sauce  Medium  Sauce 

1  T  of  fat  2  T  of  fat 

1  T  of  flour  2  T  of  flour 

1  c  of  milk  (usually)  1  c  of  milk  or  other  liquid 

i^  t  of  salt  M  t  of  salt 

A  dash  of  white  pepper  A  dash  of  white  pepper 

METHODS  OF  MAKING  SAUCES  OR  THICKENING  LIQUIDS 

1.  Use  this  method  when  all  ingredients  are  cold  and 
time  must  be  considered.     Place  the  flour  and  fat  in  a  pan 
over  the  fire.     Stir  with  a  wooden  spoon  as  the  butter 
melts,  and  do  not  allow  it  to  burn.     A  wooden  spoon  is 
acid  proof,  noiseless  and  does  not  become  hot.  When  frothy 
add  the  liquid.     Stir  constantly  and  rapidly  while  it  cooks. 
It  is  cooked  when  it  does  not  taste  of  raw  flour.     Season. 

2.  Use  this  method   when  liquid  to  be  thickened   is 
warm.     Mix  the  flour  and  fat  in  a  cup  or  bowl.     With  the 
knife  place  the  mixture  of  flour  and  fat  on  the  end  of  a 
wooden  spoon  and  stir  it  into  the  liquid.     It  is  cooked  when 
it  does  not  taste  of  raw  flour.     Season. 

3.  Use  this  method  when  a  small  amount  of  fat  is  used. 
To  the  flour  add  enough  of  the  cold  liquid  to  make  a  smooth 
batter.     Pour   the   batter   into   the   boiling   liquid.     It   is 
cooked  when  it  does  not  taste  of  raw  flour.     Add  fat  and 
seasoning. 

Sauces  and  cream  soups  must  be  smooth  and  not  lumpy. 
Should  either  show  signs  of  lumping,  remove  from  the  fire 


THE  HOT  LUNCH  285 

immediately  and  beat  the  mixture  with  the  Dover  beater 
until  smooth.  Return  to  the  fire,  stirring  constantly  and 
cook  until  done.  The  thin  sauce  is  suitable  for  creamed 
potatoes,  macaroni,  toast  and  rice.  The  medium  sauce  m 
used  with  vegetables  less  starchy  than  potatoes,  and  with 
fish.  A  cupful  of  sauce  is  needed  for  a  pint  of  diced  vege- 
tables when  preparing  a  creamed  dish.  The  medium  sauce 
is  also  used  in  making  creamed  soups.  An  equal  amount 
of  the  liquid  in  which  the  vegetable  is  cooked  is  added 
to  the  sauce.  In  some  cases  the  vegetables  are  pressed 
through  a  sieve  and  added.  Sauces  can  be  kept  warm,  if 
covered  tight  and  placed  in  a  pan  of  hot  water. 

CARBOHYDRATES 
Vegetables 

Wash  vegetables,  scrape  or  pare  and  cut  into  half- inch 
cubes.  Place  in  cold  water  to  prevent  discoloration.  Put 
to  cook  in  boiling  water,  usually  just  enough  to  cover. 
Parboil  strong  flavored  vegetables  and  add  more  boiling 
water.  When  about  half  done,  add  a  tablespoonful  of  salt 
to  a  quart  of  water.  Cook  vegetables  until  tender.  A 
time-table  is  suggestive.  The  variety,  quality,  and  age  of 
the  vegetables  make  the  difference  in  the  length  of  the 
time  it  takes  to  cook  them.  As  soon  as  they  are  cooked, 
drain  off  the  liquid  and  save  it,  if  it  is  to  be  used.  Cover 
with  several  thicknesses  of  cloth  that  the  steam  may  es- 
cape, but  the  heat  be  retained.  If  a  cover  is  placed  over  the 
kettle,  the  steam  remains  in  it,  and,  as  it  cools,  it  makes 
vegetables  soggy.  Use  the  liquid  in  which  vegetables  are 
cooked,  when  making  cream  soup  or  creaming  vegetables. 

In  the  process  of  cooking,  the  water  dissolves  the  nutri- 
ents, and  flavors  are  withdrawn  from  vegetables.  Before 
combining  the  liquid  in  which  vegetables  have  been  cooked 


286  RURAL  EDUCATION 

with  milk  or  white  sauce,  add  soda,  the  amount  depending 
on  the  acidity  of  the  liquid.  Otherwise  the  milk  will  curdle. 

Cereals 

Cereals,  like  vegetables,  are  put  to  cook  in  boiling  water, 
as  they  need  to  absorb  much  water  in  the  process  of  cook- 
ing, because  they  contain  but  a  small  amount.  Cook 
cereals  in  salted  water  directly  over  the  fire  for  the  first  ten 
minutes  stirring  occasionally,  so  that  the  mixture  does  not 
stick  to  the  bottom  of  the  kettle  or  upper  part  of  the  double 
boiler.  Place  in  lower  part  of  double  boiler  in  which  is 
boiling  water,  and  continue  cooking  for  a  long  time.  Long, 
slow  cooking  is  necessary,  because  cereals  contain  a  large 
amount  of  cellulose  or  woody  fibre.  This  must  be  softened. 
Use  from  one  to  one  and  a  half  tablespoonfuls  of  salt  to 
one  quart  of  water. 

PROTEIN 

Eggs  are  readily  digested,  if  cooked  slowly,  so  that  the 
white  is  tender.  If  intense  heat  is  applied,  the  egg  white 
coagulates  quickly  and  is  hard  and  difficult  to  digest.  Sub- 
stances similar  to  egg  white  are  found  in  lean  meat,  milk 
and  cheese  in  larger  quantities,  but  in  vegetables  and 
cereals  in  smaller  quantities.  If  beef  broth  or  meat  stock 
is  to  be  prepared,  cut  the  meat  into  inch  cubes,  put  it  on 
in  cold  water  and  cook  slowly.  In  this  way  it  is  possible 
to  dissolve  the  nutrients  and  extract  the  flavors.  If  juices 
and  flavors  are  to  be  retained  in  the  meat,  start  cooking 
with  greater  heat,  plunging  meats  into  boiling  water  and 
later  decreasing  the  heat.  The  heat  of  the  boiling  water 
coagulates  the  albumin  near  the  surface,  thus  preventing, 
to  some  extent,  the  juices  from  escaping.  This  principle 
has  been  disputed  by  some  authorities,  but  it  is,  nevertheless, 
generally  accepted  as  being  correct. 


CHAPTER  XX 
MANUAL  TRAINING 

How  can  manual  training  be  taught  in  a  one-room 
rural  school?  This  is  a  question  I  have  heard  put  in  a 
disgusted  tone  by  more  than  one  skeptic.  The  most  effec- 
tive answer  I  know  is  that  it  actually  is  being  taught  in 
many  such  schools  with  a  degree  of  success  unlooked  for 
even  by  its  most  ardent  supporters.  Sewing  for  the  ad- 
vanced students  has  become  quite  common  in  some  com- 
munities, but  when  this  subject  is  taught  to  the  girls  the 
older  boys  are  left  with  only  book  work.  Such  an  arrange- 
ment gives  not  only  an  unbalanced  course,  but  it  is  con- 
ducive to  "killing  time"  on  the  part  of  the  boys. 

The  fact  that  young  women  are  teachers  in  so  many  of 
the  country  schools  is  another  objection.  Is  it  not  absurd 
to  expect  a  woman  to  teach  carpentry?  Yes,  but  we  are 
not  advocating  teaching  carpentry.  That  women  can 
direct  the  manual  training  as  outlined  in  this  chapter  as 
well  as  that  young  men  can  teach  sewing  to  the  girls,  and 
that  both  can  get  excellent  results,  has  been  proved  con- 
clusively by  several  of  our  own  teachers  in  the  associated 
schools  by  their  exhibits  at  the  annual  industrial  contests. 
It  is  not  at  all  necessary  that  the  teacher  be  expert  in  either 
of  these  subjects,  but  she  should  have  had  some  elemen- 
tary training  in  both  during  the  course  that  prepared  her 
for  teaching,  so  that  the  industrial  work  may  be  intelli- 
gently directed. 

Semi-graded  schools,  with  two  or  more  departments 
have  better  opportunities  for  carrying  on  industrial  work. 
One  teacher  should  be  a  man  who  can  conduct  the  manual 

303 


304  RURAL  EDUCATION 

training,  and  a  woman  should  take  the  girls'  work.  The 
best  country  schools  now  have  basements  and  ample  pro- 
vision can  easily  be  made  for  industrial  training.  The 
one-room  schools,  however,  are  rapidly  passing.  The 
model  rural  school  will  take  into  account  more  than  "book 
larnin'  "  in  the  education  of  its  students. 

The  value  of  manual  training  in  rural  schools  is  still 
questioned  in  some  communities.  Usually,  however,  ob- 
jection comes  from  those  least  able  to  judge.  The  mere 
whim  of  some  individual  in  the  district,  who  probably  has 
never  had  even  a  common  school  education,  is  sometimes 
sufficient  to  put  a  damper  on  this  work  or  even  to  prevent 
its  being  done  altogether.  If  manual  training  is  a  good 
thing  for  the  town  boy,  and  it  is  now  generally  conceded 
that  it  is,  it  is  better  for  the  country  boy,  as  he  is  likely 
to  make  more  direct  use  of  it.  After  all,  educators  know 
that  manual  training  is  not  only  valuable  because  the 
articles  made  are  useful,  but  because  this  kind  of  training  is 
as  necessary  for  a  well  rounded  education  as  the  training  of 
the  head  in  such  subjects  as  arithmetic.  How  much  of  all 
the  arithmetic  that  a  boy  studies  in  school  does  he  actually 
use  out  of  school?  Very  little.  And  yet  a  student  often 
studies  this  subject  eight  years  or  more  in  school  without 
mastering  the  little  he  does  need  to  know.  Does  it  not 
seem  reasonable  that  part  of  this  time  spent  on  those 
parts  of  arithmetic  that  are  not  used  out  of  school,  could 
be  profitably  spent  in  applying  manual  training?  The 
same  statement  is  true  of  some  other  subjects.  Experience 
proves  that  the  boys  who  are  best  in  manual  training  are 
also  best  in  arithmetic.  It  is  only  reasonable  that  they 
should  be. 

Requisites  to  the  success  of  this  subject  in  the  country 
school  might  be  summed  up  under  a  few  heads,  as  follows: 


MANUAL  TRAINING  305 

Encouragement,  a  work  bench,  a  few  simple  and  inexpen- 
sive tools,  some  lumber  and  other  supplies,  definite  time 
for  the  work  each  week,  some  simple  working  drawings, 
and  an  enthusiastic  teacher  to  direct  the  work.  These  are 
so  important  that  each  will  be  discussed  briefly. 

A  little  encouragement  from  the  parents,  from  the 
county  superintendent,  and  from  the  teacher  will  go  a  long 
way  toward  getting  a  good  start.  The  boys  can  be  depend- 
ed upon  to  do  their  part.  It  is  always  best  to  reserve 
judgment  until  a  new  project,  has  been  thoroughly  tried 
before  condemning  it.  Parents,  school  officials,  and  teach- 
ers are  all  guilty  at  times.  I  often  think  of  a  blunt  but 
nevertheless  true  statement  made  by  a  gentlemen  who  was 
discussing  this  topic  with  me.  He  said,  "Any  fool  can 
criticise,  but  it  takes  a  philosopher  to  plan  and  direct  work 
that  will  bring  results." 

A  workbench  can  probably  be  made  by  the  students 
themselves  with  a  little  help  from  the  teacher  or  from  some 
man  in  the  community  who  is  "handy"  with  tools.  It  can 
be  made  of  pine,  but  should  be  strong  and  durable.  Some 
of  our  students  in  the  normal  training  department  made 
their  own  benches  to  take  with  them  to  their  schools.  Such 
a  plan  is  commendable,  and  can  be  done  by  persons  who 
will  teach  near  the  school  where  they  were  trained.  In 
another  instance  a  board  member,  who  had  a  set  of  car- 
penter's tools,  offered  to  go  to  the  school  once  a  week  and 
assist  the  teacher  with  the  manual  training. 

The  tools  needed  are  a  try-square,  hammer,  backsaw, 
a  few  coping  saws,  plane,  dividers,  chisel,  a  ruler  for  each 
student,  a  brace  and  a  set  of  bits,  wood  file,  screw  driver, 
crosscut  saw,  and  a  file  and  saw  set  for  keeping  the  saws  in 
shape.  The  district  should  buy  the  set  of  tools,  but  it  is 
not  necessary  to  wait  for  it  to  do  so,  if  everything  else  is 
20 — 


306  RURAL  EDUCATION 

favorable.  Students  can  bring  tools  enough  from  home  to 
start,  and  the  set  will  be  all  the  more  appreciated,  if  the 
six  or  eight  dollars  necessary  to  purchase  it  are  raised  by  the 
school.  An  entertainment  of  some  kind  in  which  the  boys 
take  a  prominent  part  will  be  supported  by  the  community 
that  is  really  interested  in  the  welfare  of  its  young  people. 
The  local  hardware  man  will  probably  give  a  liberal  dis- 
count on  the  list  for  the  good  of  the  cause. 

The  supplies  needed  can  be  secured  from  a  local  lumber- 
man by  the  teacher  or,  better  still,  by  the  schoolboard. 
The  boys  may  pay  for  the  actual  cost  of  the  articles  made. 
In  this  way  the  only  cost  of  the  manual  training  will  be  the 
initial  cost  of  the  set  of  tools.  The  teacher  can  readily  esti- 
mate the  amount  of  each  kind  of  material  needed  after  care- 
fully going  over  the  list  of  stock  given  for  the  projects  shown 
in  this  chapter.  They  will  not  all  be  given  one  year.  After 
those  that  will  be  used  have  been  selected  from  the  list, 
determine  the  amount  of  lumber  needed  by  the  number  of 
pupils  there  will  be  to  make  each  project.  It  is  well  to  have 
on  hand  a  little  more  lumber  than  is  actually  needed  for 
each  article.  The  following  kinds  of  lumber  will  be  needed: 
Basswood,  one  fourth  inch  thick,  and  three  eighths  inch 
thick;  pine,  three  eighths  inch  thick,  one  half  inch  thick, 
three  eighths  inch  thick,  one  and  one  half  inch  thick,  and 
one  and  three  fourths  inch  thick;  oak,  one  half  inch  thick, 
one  inch  thick,  one  and  one  half  inches  thick.  By  referring 
to  the  drawings  and  the  material  for  each  project,  it  will  be 
seen  what  the  dimensions  are.  If  it  is  impossible  to  get  the 
exact  thickness  wanted,  get  the  nearest  to  it.  The  local 
lumber  merchant  will  be  glad  to  send  for  just  what  is  needed, 
if  he  is  advised  a  few  weeks  before  the  bench  work  begins. 
Lumber  cannot  usually  be  obtained  as  quickly  as  groceries. 
A  few  sheets  of  fine,  medium,  and  coarse  sandpaper  should 


MANUAL  TRAINING  307 

be  kept  on  hand.  This  is  cut  into  small  pieces  for  use. 
The  coarse  should  be  used  first,  and  the  finest  for  getting 
the  smooth  surface.  A  bottle  of  shellac,  a  small  brush, 
and  a  can  or  two  of  stain  will  complete  the  materials  needed. 

The  time  given  to  manual  training  will  naturally  vary 
with  the  conditions.  If  possible,  give  two  hours  a  week, 
although  one  period  will  be  better  than  none.  From  three 
to  four  o'clock  twice  a  week,  while  the  girls  are  taking  work 
in  sewing,  is  the  time  proposed  on  the  Three  Division  pro- 
gram in  Chapter  VIII.  This  is  enough  time  in  which  to 
get  the  boys  interested.  They  will  usually  put  in  extra 
time  before  and  after  school,  if  given  the  opportunity. 

Working  drawings  are  necessary  for  accurate  work.  Those 
given  here  are  simple,  and  can  be  easily  understood.  They 
should  be  studied  very  carefully  before  attempting  to  make 
the  articles.  Upon  the  ability  to  read  the  drawings  and 
directions  well  will  largely  depend  the  success  of  the  project. 

The  teacher  is  not  expected  to  do  the  work  for  the  pupils. 
She  should  be  familiar  with  the  tools  used,  and  know  how 
to  interpret  the  working  drawings  and  directions.  In  this 
way  she  can  see  that  the  students  understand  just  what 
they  are  doing.  The  arithmetic  lessons  can  be  made  practical 
by  supplementing  with  problems  from  the  manual  training 
exercises  as  well  as  from  the  hot  lunch  recipes  and  the  sew- 
ing models.  The  language  lessons  can  also  be  enriched 
from  the  same  sources.  Here  is  the  teacher's  opportunity. 

The  student  should  study  from  reference  books  the  use 
of  each  tool  used  and  how  to  take  care  of  it  and  keep  it 
sharp.  He  ought  also  to  know  where  each  kind  of  wood 
used  grows,  how  it  is  manufactured,  and  why  it  is  used 
instead  of  some  other  kind  of  material.  The  same  informa- 
tion should  be  obtained  for  all  other  materials  used.  This 
useful  knowledge  will  make  a  basis  for  good  booklet  work 


308  RURAL  EDUCATION 

in  the  language  classes.     Chapter  XXV  can  be  used  as  a 
reference  for  this  work. 

The  plan  suggested  for  class  work  is  the  same  as  that 
for  the  sewing  classes.  The  children  of  the  First  Division 
are  too  young  for  this  work.  They  may  either  be  dismissed 
or  given  simple  industrial  work.  The  boys  of  the  Second 
Division,  fourth  and  fifth  years,  should  work  together,  and 
complete  the  first  nine  projects  during  the  two  years  they 
are  in  this  division.  This  amount  of  work  may  not  seem 
to  be  much;  but,  if  it  is  well  done,  it  lays  a  good  foundation 
for  the  advanced  work.  "Make  haste  slowly,"  and  work 
for  quality,  not  quanitity.  The  boys  of  the  Third  Division, 
sixth  and  seventh  years,  will  constitute  the  other  class,  and 
they  should  complete  the  list  of  projects  given  during  the 
two  years  they  are  in  the  division.  If  the  school  is  not 
organized  on  the  Three  Division  plan,  I  should  then  have 
the  fifth  and  sixth-year  pupils  together  in  the  first  class  in 
manual  training  and  sewing,  and  the  seventh  and  eighth  in 
the  second  class.  The  fourth,  in  that  case,  should  do  in- 
dustrial work  with  the  First  Division.  Chapter  XVII  dis- 
cusses the  elementary  work.  The  following  outlines  give 
the  work  in  detail  for  the  four  years'  work  of  the  two  divi- 
sions. Both  classes  can  work  at  the  same  time,  if  there  is 
bench  room. 

ARTICLES  SUITABLE  FOR  RURAL  SCHOOLS 

The  student  should  study  each  cut  of  the  article  to  be 
made  very  carefully  before  attempting  to  do  the  work. 
Read  directions  and  consult  the  cut  again  before  starting. 

1— Key  Label 

Material:  Basswood  as  follows:  4  inches  by  1J4  inches 
by  J4  inch. 


MANUAL  TRAINING 


309 


Tools  Used:    Chisel,  saw,  brace  and  bit,  and  ruler. 
Directions:    Saw  out  the  stock  4  inches  long  and  1J4 
inches  wide.     Then  lay  out  the   key   label   following   the 


Figure  98.     Key  label. 


dimensions  given  in  the  cut.     Chisel  the  edges  carefully 
down   to   the   line.     Bore   the   hole. 


2— Match  Scratcher 


inches  by 


Material:      Basswood  as  follows: 
inches  by  J4  inch. 

Tools  Used:  Chisel, 
saw,  dividers,  and  brace 
and  bit. 

Directions:  Saw  out 
the  stock  3^/8  inches  long 
and  2J/2  inches  wide. 
Lay  out  match  scratcher 
according  to  directions 
in  the  cut,  using  the 
dividers  to  make  the 
arcs.  Chisel  to  the 
proper  shape  and  bore 
the  hole.  Cutout.  Sand- 
paper till  smooth.  Fit 


Figure  99.     Match  scratcher. 


310 


RURAL  EDUCATION 


the  sandpaper  and  fasten  on  with  glue.     This  is  a  useful 
article  and  will  make  a  nice  little  remembrance. 

3— Fishline  Winder 

Material:     Basswood  as  follows:  6  inches  by  2J4  inches 
by  J4  inch. 

Tools   Used:     Chisel,  saw,  knife  and  ruler. 
Directions:    Saw   out   the  stock   6   inches  long    and 
inches  wide.     Lay  out  the  fishline  winder,  following 


Figure  100.     Fishline  winder. 


directions  given  in  the  cut.  Chisel  the  sides  to  shape. 
With  a  sloyd  knife  or  jackknife  whittle  out  the  ends  to  the 
proper  shape.  Every  boy  will  find  a  use  for  this  article. 

4—  Plant  Marker 

Material:  Basswood  as  follows:  one  piece  4^  inches 
by  23/2  inches  by  J4  inch,  one  piece  6^/2  inches,  by  1J4 
inches.  by  %  inch. 

Tools  Used:     Chisel,  saw,  dividers,  knife  and  hammer. 

Directions:  Saw  out  the  stock  one  piece  4J/£  inches 
by  2^/2  inches  and  one  piece  6J^  inches  by  1*4  inches.  Lay 
out  the  face  of  the  plant  marker;  then  lay  out  the  stake. 
Using  the  knife,  whittle  out  the  face.  Chisel  out  the  stake. 


MANUAL  TRAINING 


311 


Figure  101.     Plant  marker. 

Nail  the  two  pieces  together.  The  plant  marker  will  be 
found  very  useful  in  the  spring  when  the  vegetable  garden 
is  being  made. 

6— Whisk  Broom  Holder 

Material:  Basswood  as  follows:  one  piece  8  inches  by 
5  inches  by  J4  inch;  one  piece  5  inches  by  5  inches  by  J4 
inch;  two  pieces  5  inches  by  1J4  inches  by  %  inch. 

Tools  Used:     Saw,  plane,  brace  and  bit  and  hammer. 

Directions:  Saw  out  the  stock  according  to  directions. 
Lay  out  the  back,  front  and  side  pieces.  Plane  the  back, 
front  and  side  pieces  to  the  proper  size.  Then  put'the  parts 
together.  Bore  the  hole  to  hang  the  holder.  This  is  a 
useful  little  article  for  the  kitchen  or  bedroom. 


312 


RURAL  EDUCATION 


Figure  102.     Whisk  broom  holder. 


6— Salt  Box 


-1  

1 

P 

.  —  • 
_  —  " 

r 

• 

i 

k        ->i- 

1 

C 

:> 

1 

1                      1 

- 

1 

~f 

> 

c-"             1 

>              ^ 

-*{ 

•4 

<  — 

-4  - 

—& 

* 

J 

__ 

Figure  103.     Salt  box. 


MANUAL  TRAINING 


313 


Material:  Basswood  as  follows:  one  piece  10  inches 
by  5  inches  by  J4  inch;  one  piece  5  inches  by  5  inches  by  J4 
inch;  one  piece  5  inches  by  4%  inches  by  J4  inch;  two  pieces 
6  inches  by  4  inches  by  J4  inch;  one  piece  4  inches  by  5 
inches  by  J4  inch. 

Tools  Used:    Saw,  plane,  hammer  and  brace  and  bit. 

Directions:  Lay  out  the  back,  front,  bottom  and  two 
sides.  Plane  these  pieces  to  the  proper  size.  Put  the  parts 
together,  using  hammer  and  small  nails.  Bore  the  hole. 
This  is  a  very  useful  article  for  the  kitchen.  The  salt  will 
be  handy  and  kept  clean,  if  the  cover  of  the  box  is  closed. 

7— Match  Box 

Material:  Basswood  as  follows:  one  piece  3^  inches 
by  3^  inches  by  J4  inch;  one  piece  3^  inches  by  2  inches 


CM 


i 


f- 


•HCM 
CD 


* 


Figure  104.     Match  box. 


314 


RURAL  EDUCATION 


by  %  inch;  one  piece  3  inches  by  1%  inches  by  ^  inch; 
two  pieces  8  inches  by  3%  inches  by  %  inch. 

Tools  Used:  Plane,  saw,  hammer,  knife,  dividers, 
brace  and  bit. 

Directions:  Saw  out  the  stock  to  the  proper  size,  fol- 
lowing the  cut  and  directions  given  above.  Lay  out  the 
parts,  plane  and  whittle  to  the  proper  size  and  shape.  Nail 
the  pieces  together  and  bore  the  hole. 

8— Toothbrush  Holder 

Material:  Basswood  as  follows:  one  piece  7J/2  inches 
by  2%  inches  by  %  inch;  one  piece  2%  inches  by  1J^  inches 
by  %  inch. 

Tools  Used:    Saw,  hammer,  plane,  brace  and  bit. 

Directions:  Saw  out  the  stock  according  to  directions. 
Lay  out  the  back  and  the  holder.  Plane  the  back  and  holder 
to  the  proper  size.  Lay  out  the  chamfer,  or  bevel,  on  the 


I  I  I  I  v»l  I  I 


er 


MOO 


gar 


Figure  105.     Toothbrush  holder. 


MANUAL  TRAINING 


315 


back.  Plane  off  the  beveled  edge  to  the  line.  Lay  out 
the  holes  on  the  holder  and  bore  them  accurately  with 
the  brace  and  bit.  Make  the  saw  cuts.  Study  the  draw- 
ing carefully.  This  is  an  article  that  should  be  in  every 
home  so  that  each  member  of  the  family  can  have  a  definite 
place  for  his  toothbrush.  Incidently,  it  may  be  that  more 
brushes  will  be  used,  if  the  racks  are  made  and  taken  home. 

9— Bird  House 

Material:  Basswood  as  follows:  two  pieces  5}^  inches 
by  3^  inches  by  %  inch;  two  pieces  4J/g  inches  by  4  inches 
by  J4  inch;  one  piece  4%  inches  by  3%  inches  by  %  inch; 
two  pieces  5j/£  inches  by  3J/2  inches  by  J4  inch. 

Tools  Used:     Saw,  plane,  hammer,  and  brace  and  bit. 

Directions:  Lay  out  end  pieces  and  cut  them  to  the 
proper  size  with  the  saw.  Lay  out  roof  boards  and  plane 


I  I 


24' 

/'- 


Figure  106.     Bird  house. 


316 


RURAL  EDUCATION 


to  size.  Plane  the  post  to  size.  Assemble  the  pieces  and 
fasten  together.  Paint  any  color  desired.  Gray  or  green 
are  probably  best.  Students  should  be  encouraged  to  make 
bird  houses  and  erect  them  in  the  home  yards,  as  they  will 
then  become  more  interested  in  all  common  birds,  seeing 
their  beauty  as  well  as  usefulness. 

10 — Planing  Exercise 

Material:     Pine  9J4  inches  by  1%  inches  by  1%  inches. 

Tools  Used:    Plane  and  saw. 

Directions:  Plane  and  square  a  face.  Test  it  with 
try-square.  From  this  face  square  an  edge.  Next  square 
one  end  with  the  squared  face  and  edge.  Cut  to  length 
and  square  end.  Cut  to  width  and  square  edge.  Cut  to 

Ml1 


-KM 


Figure  107.     Planing  exercise. 

thickness  and  square  face.  While  the  plane  is  necessary 
in  making  the  objects  listed  above,  it  is  not  necessary  to 
make  up  a  planing  exercise  until  more  complicated  projects  are 
executed.  If  students  do  not  get  this  exercise  well  the 
first  time,  it  should  be  repeated,  as  they  will  need  to  be  able 
to  plane  to  the  line  in  making  the  exercises  that  follow. 

11— Sawing  Exercise 

Material:     Pine  9}^  inches  by  1%  inches  by  1%  inches. 
Tools  Used:     Plane  and  saw. 

Directions:     Plane  and  square  up  the  stock  to  9  inches 
and  iy%  inches  square.     Study  the  drawing  and  make  saw 


MANUAL  TRAINING 


317 


-  i 


Figure  108.     Sawing  exercise. 

cuts  as  designated  in  the  drawing,  using  the  hacksaw.  This 
exercise  is  also  very  necessary  in  order  to  do  accurately 
the  work  that  follows. 

12 — Bread  Board 

Material:     Pine  12  inches  by  6  inches  by  %  inch. 

Tools  Used:  Plane,  saw,  dividers,  wood  file  and  sand- 
paper. 

Directions:  Saw  out  the  stock  12  inches  by  6  inches 
by  %  inch.  Square  one  face.  Square  one  edge  with  the 


i- 


Figure  109.     Bread  board. 


squared  face.  Square  one  end  with  the  squared  face  and 
edge.  Cut  to  proper  length  and  square  the  end.  Cut  to 
proper  width  and  square  the  edge.  Cut  to  proper  thickness 


318 


RURAL  EDUCATION 


and  square  the  face.  Lay  out  curved  ends  with  the  dividers 
and  cut  with  chisel.  Lay  out  rounded  bevel  and  work 
round  with  the  plane.  Smooth  up  the  bevel  with  the  wood 
file.  Sandpaper  the  entire  board  until  it  is  perfectly  smooth. 

13— Sleeve  Board 

Material:  Pine  as  follows:  Two  pieces  22  inches  by 
4%  inches  by  %  inch;  two  pieces  8J4  inches  by  4  inches 
by  %  inch. 

Tools  Used:  Saw,  plane,  chisel,  wood  file,  sandpaper, 
and  brace  and  bit. 

Directions:  Saw  out  the  stock  according  to  directions. 
Plane  the  bottom  to  the  proper  size  and  round  the  four 
corners.  Lay  out  the  top  board  and  plane  to  the  proper 


22 


Figure  110.     Sleeve  board. 

size  and  shape.  Make  dowel  holes  and  put  in  the  dowels. 
Put  in  bolts.  Use  wood  file  and  sandpaper  on  all  rough 
edges.  Sandpaper  the  top  until  perfectly  smooth.  This 
is  a  very  useful  article  in  the  home  and  not  difficult  to  make, 
if  the  drawing  and  the  directions  are  followed  carefully. 


MANUAL  TRAINING 


319 


14— Knife  Box 

Material:  Pine  as  follows:  one  piece  12%  inches  by 
inches  by  %  inch;  two  pieces  8  inches  by  5  inches  by 
%  inch;  two  pieces  12  inches  by  3  inches  by  %  inch. 

Tools  Used:  Plane,  saw,  hammer,  dividers,  brace  and 
bit  and  sandpaper. 

Directions:  After  studying  the  drawing,  saw  out  the 
stock.  Plane  the  bottom  piece  to  the  proper  size.  Lay 


Figure  111.     Knife  box. 

out  the  rounded  bevel  and  plane.  Lay  out  end  pieces  and 
cut  them  to  shape.  Cut  the  holes  for  handles  in  the  end 
pieces,  using  brace  and  bit.  Cut  side  pieces  to  proper  size. 
Assemble  and  nail  pieces  together.  Sandpaper  the  entire 
box  until  smooth.  This  is  another  very  useful  article. 
While  it  is  called  a  knife  box,  knives,  forks  and  spoons  can 
be  kept  in  it. 


320 


RURAL  EDUCATION 


15— Floor  Broom  Holder 

Material:  Pine  as  follows:  one  piece  8  inches  by  3  inches 
by  %  inch;  one  piece  5j/£  inches  by  2  3/2  inches  by  J4  inch. 

Tools  Used :  Plane,  saw,  brace  and  bit,  chisel,  sandpaper 
and  screw  driver. 

Directions:  Square  up  the  bottom  piece  and  the  holder 
to  size,  following  the  drawing  and  the  directions.  Lay 
out  the  bevel  on  the  bottom  piece  and  plane  the  bevel.  Lay 


Figure  112.     Floor  broom  holder. 

out  the  holder  and  cut  to  the  proper  shape.  Bore  the  hole 
for  the  holder.  Make  saw  cuts.  Assemble  .and  fasten 
the  pieces  together  with  screws,  as  shown  in  the  drawing. 
Sandpaper  carefully  until  smooth.  This  useful  little  article 
will  be  welcomed  by  any  housekeeper.  Unless  there  is 
a  proper  place  for  the  broom,  it  is  often  short-lived  and 
usually  in  the  way. 


MANUAL  TRAINING 


321 


16— Nail  Box  or  Tray 

Material:    Pine  as  follows:  two  pieces  14^g  inches  by 
inches  by  %  inch;  three  pieces  8J4  inches  by  2^  inches 
by  Ys  inch;  one  piece  8J£  inches  by  3J/g  inches  by  %  inch. 
Tools  Used:    Plane,   saw,   hammer,   chisel,   brace  and 
bit  and  sandpaper. 

Directions:  After  studying  the  drawing,  plane  the 
sides  and  ends  to  the  proper  sizes.  Plane  the  partitions  to 
size.  Cut  out  the  handle  and  make  it  smooth.  Assemble 


• 

~-|CO 

1   , 

. 

"IViICO                *tT>|OD 

cr 

,!     ' 

3  -                *?           in  '  " 

7 

^ 

i 

8 

8 

toloO 

Figure  113.     Nail  box  or  tray. 


and  nail  pieces  together.  Sandpaper  until  smooth.  Every 
boy  should  know  the  different  sizes  of  nails  and  what  they 
are  used  for.  Each  division  of  the  tray  may  be  used  for 
one  size  of  nails.  "A  place  for  everything  and  everything 
in  its  place"  can  be  followed  with  a  nail  box. 
21 — 


322 


RURAL  EDUCATION 


17— Necktie  Rack 

Material:  Oak  as  follows:  three  pieces  16  inches  by 
J/8  inches  by  J4  inch;  two  pieces  5  inches  by  1%  inches  by 
Yz  inch. 

Tools  Used:     Plane,  saw,  chisel,  sandpaper  and  hammer. 

Directions:  Plane  the  front  and  back  pieces  to  the 
proper  size,  following  the  drawing.  Lay  out  the  ends  and 

). 16" 

.  n 


Figure  114.     Necktie  rack. 

cut  to  proper  shape.  Nail  the  pieces  together,  and  sandpaper 
carefully.  Stain,  using  any  desired  color.  The  stain  may 
be  put  on  by  using  a  cloth  and  rubbing  it  into  the  wood. 
This  handy  article  would  make  a  useful  Christmas  present. 

18— Towel  Roller 

Material:  Pine  as  follows:  one  piece  21 J^  inches  by 
4%  inches  by  %  inch;  two  pieces  3  inches  by  2  inches  by 
%  inch;  one  piece  20  inches  by  1J^  inches  by  l1/^  inches. 


MANUAL  TRAINING 


323 


Tools  Used:  Plane,  saw,  chisel,  screw  driver,  wood 
file  and  brace  and  bit. 

Directions:  Saw  out  the  stock.  Plane  and  square  up 
the  back,  the  ends  and  the  roller.  Lay  out  the  bevel  on  the 
back  and  plane  it.  Lay  out  the  ends  and  cut  to  shape. 
Bore  the  holes  in  the  ends  for  the  roller.  Plane  the  roller 
until  it  is  round.  Cut  the  tenons  on  the  ends  of  the  roll- 


2, 


'-- 

3 

" 

£ 

fi 

^ 

00 

[                    * 

- 

'2 

I—  3  — 
Figure  115.     Towel  roller. 

er  so  they  will  fit  the  holes  in  the  ends.  Smooth  the  roller 
with  the  wood  file.  Fasten  the  end  pieces  to  the  back  with 
screws,  as  shown  in  the  drawing.  Sandpaper  all  the  pieces 
until  they  are  smooth.  Rub  on  the  stain  with  a  cloth. 
Put  the  roller  in  place.  While  the  family  towel  is  not 
sanitary,  it  is  better  to  have  it  on  a  roller  than  merely  hung 
up  on  a  nail.  A  roll  of  paper  toweling  could  be  fastened 
on  the  roller  instead  of  the  common  towel. 

19— Milk  Stool 

Material:  Pine  as  follows:  two  pieces  10  inches  by 
9  inches  by  %  inch;  one  piece  16  inches  by  5J/2  inches  by 
%  inch;  one  piece  11  inches  by  5>£  inches  by  %  inch. 


324 


RURAL  EDUCATION 


1      IP 

•M 

-IfM 
f\J 
1 

Sfc» 

J                    J 

Hf 


•3 


H'ih 

Figure  116.     Milk  stool. 


Tools  Used:  Saw, plane 
and  screw  driver. 

Directions:  Saw  out 
the  stock.  Square  up  the 
top,  the  side  pieces  and  the 
bottom.  Lay  out  the  bevel 
on  the  top  and  plane  it  to 
the  line.  Lay  out  the  ends 
and  cut  to  the  proper  shape. 
Bring  pieces  together  and 
fasten  with  screws.  Sand- 
paper until  smooth.  As 
many  of  these  stools  can 
be  used  in  any  dairy  barn 
as  there  are  persons  milk- 
ing. Boxes,  up-turned  pails, 
and  other  temporary  things 


are  unhandy,  and  a  stool   can  be  made  with  very  little 
labor  and  expense. 

20— Camp  Stool 

Material:  Oak  as  follows:  four  pieces  21  inches  by  1^ 
inches  by  %  inch;  four  pieces  16J^  inches  by  1  inch  by  1 
inch. 

Tools  Used:  Plane,  saw,  wood  file,  sandpaper  and 
brace  and  bit. 

Directions:  Square  up  all  pieces  as  given  in  the  draw- 
ing. Bore  holes  in  the  side  pieces.  Round  up  the  cross 
pieces,  using  the  plane.  Bring  the  parts  together  and 
fasten  them  securely.  After  sandpapering  the  stool  it 
should  be  shellacked,  using  a  brush  or  a  cloth.  A  piece  of 
canvas  or  common  grain  sack  may  be  cut  to  the  desired 
size  and  sewed  around  the  cross  pieces.  A  few  camp  stools 


MANUAL  TRAINING 


325 


on  the  porch  or  on  the  lawn  will  give  enough  extra  comfort 
to  pay  for  the  work  of  making  them.  Many  boys  plan  an 
outing  in  the  summer.  These  stools  are  collapsible  and 
may  be  packed  away  with  other  camp  utensils,  or  they  may 
be  made  to  come  apart,  the  "take  down"  kind,  and  carried 
in  the  knapsack.  Or  carry  the  canvas  and  make  the  stool. 


-— 13' 


Figure  117.     Camp  stool. 


21— Another  Toothbrush  Holder 

Material:     Oak  as  follows:  one  piece  8  inches  by 
inches  by  Y^  inch;  one  piece  8  inches  by  1J^  inches  by  1J/2 
inches. 

Tools  Used:  Saw,  plane,  dividers,  bevel,  sandpaper 
and  brace  and  bit. 

Directions:  Lay  out  the  back  and  cut  to  the  proper 
shape.  Cut  the  holder  to  shape,  using  the  drawing  as  the 
guide.  Fasten  the  pieces  together  securely.  Sandpaper 
until  smooth  and  rub  on  a  stain.  As  will  be  noticed,  this 
is  a  more  difficult  model  than  Number  8,  and  more  durable. 


826 


RURAL  EDUCATION 


¥ 


Figure  118.     Another  toothbrush  holder. 

22— Tub  Stand 

Material:  Oak  as 
follows:  six  pieces  22 
inches  by  2^2  inches 
by  %  inch;  one  piece 
173/2  inches  by  4 
inches  by  %  inch ;  ten 
pieces  16J/2  inches  by 
1  inch  by  1  inch;  one 
u  „  piece  16  inches  by  5 
hHjji  inches  by  %  inch; 
two  pieces  36  inches 
by  2J/2  inches  by  % 
inch. 

Tools  Used:    Saw, 
plane  and  brace  and 

Figure  119.     Tub  stand.  hit 


MANUAL  TRAINING  327 

Directions:  Study  the  drawing  carefully.  Square  up 
all  the  pieces  and  cut  them  to  the  proper  size.  Work  each 
piece  to  shape.  Plane  the  cross  pieces  until  they  are  round. 
Make  them  smooth  with  the  wood  file  and  sandpaper. 
Fasten  the  pieces  together  firmly.  Finish  with  a  coat  or 
two  of  shellac.  This  is  one  of  the  most  useful  things  that 
could  be  made  for  the  kitchen.  The  rack  can  be  folded  up 
and  put  away  when  not  in  use.  There  is  room  for  two 
tubs,  and  the  wringer  is  fastened  to  the  top  of  the  stand. 
While  it  is  more  difficult  to  make  than  the  other  exercises 
given,  it  is  not  at  all  impossible  for  some  older"  boy.  It 
would  also  make  a  good  home  project. 

HOME  PROJECTS  IN  MANUAL  TRAINING 

In  many  country  schools  there  are  boys  in  the  middle 
'teens  or  older,  who  would  be  glad  to  do  some  manual 
training  at  home,  if  they  had  the  opportunity.  Older 
brothers  or  father  may  be  able  to  assist.  The  working 
drawings  and  directions  for  a  few  very  useful  farm  projects 
are  here  given.  They  should  suggest  others.  These  have 
all  been  done  by  farm  boys  attending  our  associated  schools, 
and  can  be  done  by  any  bright,  energetic  young  man. 

A  workshop  should  be  provided  on  every  farm.  Even  if 
it  must  be  in  a  corner  of  some  other  building,  have  a  shop. 
It  should  contain  a  bench  sufficiently  large  for  a  man's  con- 
venience. A  list  of  tools  similar  to  those  given  above  for 
the  rural  schools  will  be  needed.  A  grindstone,  run  by 
power,  of  course,  on  a  modern  farm,  and  such  materials  as 
will  be  needed  for  ordinary  repairs  on  the  place  should  be 
systematically  arranged.  And  these  are  not  all.  A  port- 
able forge,  with  the  necessary  tools  for  operating  it,  will 
pay  for  itself  several  times  in  one  year  on  some  farms.  It 
is  a  waste  of  time  and  money  to  take  an  implement  to  town 


328  RURAL  EDUCATION 

that  might  be  repaired  in  the  home  shop.  Every  farm 
boy  should  learn  how  to  make  a  weld  that  will  hold,  and 
how  to  make  the  simple  repairs  needed.  Rainy  days  and 
odd  times  without  suitable  work  have  more  to  do  with 
making  a  boy  dissatisfied  with  the  farm  than  lack  of  picnics 
and  other  good  times.  One  of  the  most  interesting  places 
to  a  boy  is  the  blacksmith  shop.  A  soldering  outfit  should 
also  be  there,  as  it  will  be  needed  in  some  of  the  repairs. 

Cement  work  is  now  very  practicable  on  the  farm. 
This  can  be  learned  by  any  of  the  older  boys.  Sidewalks, 
barn  floors,  drinking  troughs,  hitching  posts,  and  even 
building  blocks  can  all  be  made  very  cheaply.  In  some 
sections  cement  posts  are  taking  the  place  of  wooden  ones. 
If  soft  wood,  as  poplar,  grows  on  the  farm,  posts  from  this 
may  be  made  and  treated  so  that  they  will  last  almost  as 
long  as  a  cedar  post.  This  process  is  cheaper  than  cement, 
as  it  can  be  done  for  a  few  cents  a  post.  See  the  outline  for 
the  booklet  on  "Wood  Preservatives  and  Substitutes/' 
Chapter  XXL 

The  three  projects  suggested  for  home  work  can  easily 
be  done,  as  all  of  them  are  successfully  being  done  in  some 
schools,  by  "short  course"  students  from  the  farms. 

Chicken  Coop 

Material:    Pine  as  follows: 

4  pieces  24  feet  long  by  12  inches  wide  by  %  inch, 
2  pieces  34  inches  long  by  1}^  inches  wide  by  %  inch. 
2  pieces  21  inches  long  by  1J^  inches  wide  by  J/2  inch. 
2  pieces  17  inches  long  by  1%  inches  wide  by  J/2  inch. 
2  pieces  10  inches  long  by  1J/2  inches  wide  by  J^  inch. 
Tools  Used:    Plane,  saw,  hammer,  square,  brace  and  bit. 
Directions:     See  drawing.     Join  the  two  sides  together. 
Nail  sides  in  V  shape.     Put  on  slats,  front  and  back.     Paint. 


MANUAL  TRAINING 


2 


Figure  120.     Chicken  coop. 

Wagon  Box 
Materials: 

2  pieces  10  feet  6  inches  by  12  inches  by  %  inch — pine. 
2  pieces  3  feet  by  12  inches  by  %  inch — pine. 
2  pieces  3  feet  7  inches  by  4  inches  by  2  inches — oak. 
2  pieces  3  feet  3  inches  by  4  inches  by  2  inches — oak. 
4  pieces  10  feet  6  inches  by  12  inches  by  %  inch — pine. 
Iron  work:     Braces  and  top  irons. 


M 


_ 

fl 

^  VTN- 

•f 

d 

p 

* 

^ 

* 

*  —  ' 

ij- 



t 

Figure  121.     Wagon  box. 


330 


RURAL  EDUCATION 


Tools  Used:  Plane,  saw,  brace  and  bit,  screw  driver, 
hammer  and  square. 

Directions:  See  drawing.  Make  bottom  braces  first. 
Then  cut  out  sides;  make  bottom;  make  end  gates;  as- 
semble. Put  on  iron  work.  Paint. 

Stock  Rack 

Materials:  2  pieces  10  feet  by  8  inches  by  2  inches— pine. 
8  pieces  10  feet  by  4  inches  by  1  inch — pine. 
10  pieces  4  feet  3  inches  by  4  inches  by  2  inch — pine. 
8  pieces  3  feet  by  4  inches  by  1  inch — pine. 


± 

i 

J 

00 

* 

t 

|                |b                e* 

L 

C 

E 

J 
3 

3 

f 

V 

* 

1 

Figure  122.     Stock  rack. 

Tools  Used:  Plane,  saw,  square,  brace  and  bit,  screw 
driver,  wrench. 

Directions:  See  drawing.  Plane  and  cut  the  boards 
to  size.  Make  end  gates;  assemble.  Paint. 


CHAPTER  XXI 


AGRICULTURE  AND  AGRICULTURAL 
BOOKLETS 

It  is  entirely  practicable  to  teach  the  elements  of  agri- 
culture in  the  rural  schools.  A  few  suitable  textbooks  have 
been  published  for  this  work,  but  it  is  a  good  plan  to  sup- 
plement the  work  of  the  textbook  by  excursions,  talks,  and 

booklets  in  con- 
nection with  the 
language  work. 
Encourage  the 
students  to  have 
home  gardens 
and,  if  possible, 
give  prizes  for 
the  exhibits  in 
the  fall.  The 
school  can  well 
afford  to  furnish 

vegetable  and  flower  seeds  to  stimulate  interest.  Many 
counties  and  states  now  have  contests  in  corn  and  other 
products,  and  rural  school  students  especially  should  be  en- 
couraged to  enter  these  contests. 

Agricultural  talks  by  the  teacher  to  the  entire  school 
should  be  given  frequently.  Students  should  be  made 
familiar  with  all  the  common  grains,  grasses,  seeds,  flowers, 
trees,  vegetables,  weeds,  insects,  and  farm  animals.  Make 
collections  of  grains  and  grasses  in  the  fall  and  have  them 
for  study  during  the  winter.  Select  seed  corn  during 
"Seed  Corn  Week."  Make  window  boxes  and  plant  cab- 
bage and  tomato  seeds  early  in  the  spring.  Make  germi- 

331 


Figure  123.  Two  prize  winners  in  the  state  contest  and 
samples  of  their  corn.  Their  average  yield  was  over 
one  hundred  and  ten  bushels  per  acre.  The  ear  on 
the  scale  weighs  just  a  pound. 


332  RURAL  EDUCATION 

nation  boxes  and  "rag  dolls"  for  testing  seed  corn  and 
other  seed.  Learn  the  use  of  the  common  garden  tools  and 
farm  implements.  Make  a  social  survey  of  the  school 
district  and  locate  farms,  silos,  creamery,  dairy  herds,  etc. 
Bring  a  sample  of  the  top  and  subsoil  from  each  farm,  or 
as  many  farms  as  convenient.  Put  these  samples  in  small 
glass  bottles  for  study.  Get  samples  of  clay,  sand,  loam, 
humus  and  fertilizers.  Study  the  different  soils  derived 
from  a  mixture  of  these.  Study  the  relation  of  moisture  to 
crops.  Show  by  simple  experiments  capillarity,  solubility 
and  osmosis,  and  explain  how  plants  get  their  food  by  these 
means.  Study  the  breeds  of  horses,  cattle,  hogs  and  sheep 
found  in  the  community.  Make  a  school  collection  of 
injurious  and  beneficial  insects  and  be  able  to  discuss  each 
and  tell  methods  of  getting  rid  of  the  injurious  kinds. 
Learn  the  bad  weeds  of  the  district.  Make  a  collection  of 
them  and  tell  how  to  eradicate  them.  Get  two  or  three 
dozen  "pill  bottles"  at  the  drug  store.  Collect  grain  and 
weed  seeds  in  the  fall,  dry  them,  put  them  into  the  bottles, 
and  label  neatly.  Study  these  and  the  pressed  collection 
during  the  winter.  Make  a  special  study  of  potatoes  dur- 
ing the  fall,  when  they  are  being  dug.  Bring  as  many 
varieties  as  you  can  get  for  comparison  and  study.  Bake 
a  few  of  each,  and  boil  some  for  the  hot  lunches  and  test 
their  eating  qualities. 

Permanent  school  exhibits  in  agricultural  products 
should  be  made.  The  above  list  of  topics  will  suggest 
others.  The  work  discussed  and  field  work  done  may  be 
written  up  in  the  booklets.  A  few  topics  should  be  chosen 
for  the  year  and  these  outlines  carefully  worked  out. 

Agricultural  booklets  are  the  common  means  of  study- 
ing agriculture  in  the  rural  schools.  These  are  written  as 
language  work,  on  good  paper  with  pen  and  ink,  and  dis- 


AGRICULTURAL  BOOKLETS  333 

cuss  an  outline  of  some  phase  of  agriculture.  Clippings 
from  magazines,  catalogs,  or  original  drawings  in  ink  or 
water  color,  are  used  to  illustrate  the  booklets.  Cover 
paper,  or  common  drawing  paper  tinted  may  be  used  as 
covers  for  the  booklets.  A  great  number  of  suitable  topics 
might  be  suggested  for  this  work,  but  each  school  should 
select  a  few  that  are  best  suited  to  its  own  community. 

Suggestive  topics  for  agricultural  booklet  work  are  as 
follows:  Corn,  Small  Grains,  Noxious  Weeds,  the  Vege- 
table Garden,  Potatoes,  the  Legumes,  Alfalfa  and  Its  Uses, 
the  Fiber  Crops  of  the  United  States,  Grass  and  Forage 
Crops,  Sugar  Beets,  Soils  and  Fertilizers,  Seed  Testing  for 
Purity  and  Germination,  Injurious  and  Beneficial  Insects, 
Rotation  of  Crops,  Drainage,  The  Need  of  Modern  Methods 
in  Farming,  Dry  Farming  and  Irrigation. 

The  outlines  that  follow  are  to  be  worked  out  by  the 
students  in  booklet  form.  Reference  material  will  be  found 
in  the  school  library,  at  home,  and,  above  all,  in  the  fields. 
Work  them  out  as  fully  as  you  can  and  illustrate  the 
booklets  with  pictures  and  original  drawings.  Only  the 
best  writing  and  language  the  student  is  capable  of  using 
should  be  accepted  in  this  work,  as  it  is  English  work  as 
well  as  agriculture. 

AGRICULTURAL  OUTLINES 
CORN 

Early  History—  Pop  corn — Where  grown,  uses. 

In  the  United  States — Indian  corn.  Sweet  corn — Where  grown,  canning. 

In  your  state — Development  of  varie-  Flint — Where  grown — varieties, 

ties.  Dent — Where  grown — varieties. 

In  your  locality — Earliest  growers.  Cultivation- 
Importance  as  a  Crop—  Soil- 
Where  grown — Countries  and  states.  Fertility — Rotation  of  crops. 

Yields     per     acre — National,     state,  Drainage — Necessary  to  success, 

local.  Physical  conditions. 

Comparison  with  other  crops.  Preparation  of  Seed  Bed — 

Kinds  of  Corn —  Plowing — Fall  plowing  best. 

Pod  corn — now  only  a  curiosity.  Discing — In  the  spring. 


334 


RURAL  EDUCATION 


Harrowing — Before  and  after  plant- 
ing. 
Manuring — Before      plowing,      top 

dressing. 
Planting — 

By  hand — Hand  planter,  hoe. 
Check  row — Horse  planter,  advan- 
tage. 

Drill — How  drilled,  advantages. 
Time  to  plant  locally.  . 

Summer  Tillage — 
Need  of— 

Eradication  of  weeds. 
Conservation  of  moisture. 
Depth — Shallow  va.  deep. 
Frequency — After  every  rain. 
Diseases  and  Pests- 
Smut — Cause,  eradication,  dangers. 
Animals — Gophers,  crows,  blackbirds. 
Insects — Cutworm,    wireworm,    corn 
root  louse,  white  grub,  chinch  bug 
army    worm,    stalk    borer,    grass- 
hopper. 
Method  of  dealing  with  pests. 


Quantity — Amount    needed    for    ten 

acres. 
Commercial    purposes — Prevailing 

prices. 
Storing- 
Temporary  drying — Where,  time. 
Permanent  storing — Free  from  mois- 
ture. 

Patent  devices. 
Homemade  devices. 
Corn  Judging — 
Without  score  card. 
With  score  card. 
Seed  Testing- 
Testers — Patent,  homemade. 
Individual  ear — Advantages. 
Shelled  corn — Disadvantages. 
Seed  Grading — 

How  done — Machinery. 
Why  done — Butts  and  tips. 
Corn  Breeding- 
Improvement  of  quality — Better  corn. 
Improvement      of      quantity — More 
corn. 


Figure  124.     Gathering  seed  corn  at  the  school  farm  and  stringing  for  drying 


Harvesting— 

Silage — When  cut,  how  stored. 
Bundle  corn — When  cut,  machinery, 
Husking — When,  how,  storing. 
Seed  Selection— 

From  seed  plot — Advantages. 
From  field — Best  stalks  and  ears. 
From  crib — Disadvantages. 
Time— "Seed  Corn  Week." 


Improvement     of     maturity — Earlier 

corn. 

Corn  crossing — New  varieties. 
Uses  of  Corn- 
Stock  Food- 
Grain — Ground  or  fed  whole. 
Bundle  corn — Roughage  and  grain. 
Silage — Protein  and  fattening  qual- 
ities. 


AGRICULTURAL  BOOKLETS 


335 


Courtesy  of  The  Farmer 

Figure  125.     A  tray  of  typical  seed  corn.     A  few  kernels  have  been  taken  from 
each  ear  for  the  germination  test. 


Hogging  off — Advantages. 
Commercial    preparations — Gluten 

meal,  etc. 
Human  food — 

Cornmeal — How  used. 
Corn  starch — Uses. 


Hominy — How  made,  uses. 

Corn  syrup — How  made,  uses. 
Corn  sugar — How  made,  uses. 
Special  breakfast  foods — Corn 

flakes,  etc. 

Other    Uses — Paper,    alcohol,    armor 
wadding,  etc. 


REFERENCES 

Corn  by  Bowman  &  Crossley,  Field  Crops  by  Wilson  &  Warburton,  Corn 
Crops  by  Montgomery,  and  Forage  and  Fiber  Crops  of  America  by  Hunt  are  ex- 
cellent works  ot  reference. 

ROTATION  OF  CROPS 


Need  of  Rotation — 

Exhaustion  of  soils — 

In     New    England — Character    of 

soil. 

In  Virginia — Tobacco  raising. 
In  the  West — Grain  growing. 
To  decompose  fertilizers — 
How  rotation  helps. 
Decomposition  can  take  place  only 

with    heat,     air    and     moisture. 

These    conditions    should    exist 

while     the     plant     is     growing. 

Otherwise  plant  food  is  lost  by 

washing 

To  increase  yields- 
Crops   actually   larger    under   crop 

rotation. 
To  maintain  soil  fertility — 

Some  European  soils,   cropped  for 

more    than    a    thousand    years 

under  rotation,  better  than  virgin 

•oil. 


Theories  of  Rotation- 
Toxic — Poisons  produced  by  succes- 
sive crops. 

Chemical — Plant  food  unlocked,. bac- 
teria. 

Economic — Maintains  vegetable  mat- 
ter. 
Classes  of  Rotation — 

Grain  crops — Kinds,  advantages — 
Food  and  sale  crops. 
Little  vegetable  matter  left  in  soil. 
Grass  crops — Kinds,  advantages. 
Live  stock — Pasturage. 
Vegetable      matter — Large      roots, 

bacteria. 

Cultivated  crops — Kinds,  advantages. 
Economy  in  time — Summer  work. 
Favorable    conditions    for    decom- 
position. 
Effect  on  soils — How  beneficial. 


336 


RURAL  EDUCATION 


Principles  of  Rotation- 
Short  time — 

For  building  up  worn  out  soils. 
Three-year  rotation — Grain,  grass, 

cultivated. 
Long  time — 

For  permanent  use. 
Five  to  ten  years — Advantages. 
Fertilizers  used — 


Suggestive  Rotations- 
Dressing   of    manure   once   during 

rotation. 

Commercial  fertilizers  as  needed. 
Relation  to  fields — 

Same  number  of  fields  as  years  of 

rotation. 
Fields   uniform    size    as   nearly    as 

possible. 
Enables    constant    supply    of    live 

stock. 

Three  Year  Plan — 


Year 

Field  A 

Field  B 

Field  C 

1915 
1916 
1917 

Grain 
Clover 
Corn 

Clover 
Corn 
Grain 

Corn 
Grain 
Clover 

Four  Year  Plan— 


Year 

Field  A 

Field  B 

Field  C 

Field  D 

1915 
1916 
1917 
1918 

Grain 
Meadow 
Pasture 
Corn 

Meadow 
Pasture 
Corn 
Grain 

Pasture 
Corn 
Grain 
Meadow 

Corn 
Grain 
Meadow 
Pasture 

Five  Year  Plan— 


Year 

Field  A 

Field  B 

Field  C 

Field  D 

Field  E 

1915 

Grain 

Grain 

Meadow 

Pasture 

Corn 

1916 

Grain 

Meadow 

Pasture 

Corn 

Grain 

1917 

Meadow 

Pasture 

Corn 

Grain 

Grain 

1918 

Pasture 

Corn 

Grain 

Grain 

Meadow 

1919 

Corn 

Grain 

Grain 

Meadow 

Pasture 

Note:     Find  out    what  rotations   are   used    in   the   community   and   encourage 
wider  use  of  them. 

REFERENCES 

A  new  work  entitled,  Field  Management  and  Crop  Rotation  by  E.  C.  Parker 
is  a  most  thorough  treatment  of  this  subject  and  an  invaluable  book  for  reference. 


COMMON  WEEDS 


Definition  of  a  Weed— Any  plant  out 

of  place. 
Classification— 

Annual  weeds — 

Characteristics — Ripen    seeds    one 
year  only. 


Eradication — ^Destroy    before    seed 

forms. 
Biennial  weeds — 

Characteristics — Ripen    seeds    the 

second  year. 
Eradication — Prevent  seeding. 


AGRICULTURAL  BOOKLETS 


337 


Perennial  weeds — 

Characteristics — Ripen  seeds  every 

year. 
Eradication — Destroy      seed      and 

root  stem. 

Economic  Conditions- 
Injurious  effects — 

Rob  crops  of  moisture. 
Take  nourishment  from  crops. 
Sometimes  poisonous  to  live  stock. 
Money    loss — Millions    of     dollars 

annually. 

Beneficial  effects- 
Fertilizers — Plowed  under  as  "green 

manure." 
Shade  ground — Prevents  baking  of 

soil. 

Rotation — Sometimes    compel    ro- 
tations of  crop. 
A  Dozen  "Worst  Weeds" 
Russian  thistle — 

Annual — Small  seeds,  tumble  weed. 
Where  found — Flat  prairie  country. 
How  destroyed — Cultivation,  crop 
rotation. 
Pigeon  grass — 

Other  names — Foxtail,  barn  grass. 
Annual — Small  seeds,  large  head. 
Where  found — Gardens,  grain  fields. 
How  destroyed — Cultivation 
Ragweed — 

Annual — Three  kinds,  small  seeds. 
Especially  obnoxious — Hay  fever. 
Where     found — Roadsides,     waste 

places. 
How   destroyed — Mow   roads   and 

corners. 
Cocklebur— 

Annual — Seeds  in  clusters. 
Where  found — Grain  fields. 
How  destroyed — Cultivation,  pas- 
turing. 
Mustard — 

Annual — Tall  plant,  yellow  flower. 


Where  found — Grain  fields. 

How  destroyed — Crop  rotation. 
Wild  cat- 
Annual — Ripens    early    and    shells 
out. 

Where  found — Grain  fields. 

How  destroyed — Crop  rotation. 
Burdock — 

Biennial — Bushy     plant,     seed     in 
burs. 

Where  found — Roadside,  pastures. 

How  destroyed — Digging  up,  plow- 
ing. 
Bull  thistle — 

Biennial — Bushy  plant,  red  flower. 

Where    found — Pastures,    waste 
places. 

How  destroyed — Crop  rotation. 
Dandelion — 

Perennial — Small      plant,      yellow 
flower. 

Where  found — Everywhere,   lawns 
in  particular. 

How    destroyed — Dig    out,    sheep 

pasture. 
Canada  thistle — 

Perennial — One  of  our  worst  weeds. 

Where   found — Grain   fields,    road- 
sides. 

How  destroyed — Cultivation,  crop 

rotation. 
Plantain — 

Perennial — Small    plant,    seeds    in 
spikes. 

Where  found — Lawns,  pastures. 

How  destroyed — Dig  up,  sheep  pas- 
ture. 
Quack  grass — 

Perennial — Perhaps    our    worst 

weed. 

Where  found — Grain  fields,  pastures, 
roads. 

How    destroyed — Crop    rotations, 
smotnering  summer  fallow. 


REFERENCES 

Much  help  may  be  obtained  from  Weeds  and  How  to  Eradicate  Them  by 
Shaw,  Quack  Grass  Eradication  by  Crane,  Weeds  ot  the  Farm  and  Garden  by 
Pammel,  and  Manual  of  Weeds  by  Georgia. 

INSECTS  THAT  I  KNOW 


General  Description- 
Parts — Head,  thorax,  abdomen. 
Legs — All  have  three  pairs. 
Breathing  spiracles — Tubes  on  abdo- 
men. 

22 — 


Stages  of  Growth.    (Metamorpho- 
ses)— 

First  stage — Egg. 
Second  stage — Larva. 
Tnird  stage — Pupa,  or  cocoon. 


338 


RURAL  EDUCATION 


Fourth  stage — Imago,  or  adult. 
Incomplete         metamorphoses — Egg, 

nymph,  adult. 
Groups  of  Insects — 
Biting — 

Mouth  parts  fitted  for  biting. 
Example — G  rasshopper. 
How  destroyed — Can  be  poisoned. 
Sprays — Paris  Greeny  lead  acetate. 

Paris   green 1  pound. 

Quicklime 1  pound. 

Water 200  gallons. 

Sucking — 

Mouth    parts    fitted    for    sucking 

juices. 

Example — Plant  louse. 
How  destroyed — Suffocation,   can- 
not poison. 

Sprays — Soap    emulsion,    tobacco, 
tea. 

Soap %  pound . 

Soft  Water 1  gallon. 

Kerosene 2  gallons. 

Preying  insects — 

Those  that  feed  upon  other  insects. 
Example  Ladybugs. 
How    protect — Beneficial,    not    in- 
jurious. 
Economic  Conditions — 

Money     losses — Millions     of     dollars 

annually. 

Mechanical  devices  for  destroying. 
Unsanitary — Disease  carriers. 
•    Annoying     pests — Mosquitos,     cock- 
roaches, etc. 

Straight-winged  Insects— O  r  t  h  o  p- 
tera— 
Grasshopper — 

Changes — Incomplete,     biting     in- 
sect. 
Economy — Injurious,      grain     and 


Cockroach — 

Changes — Incomplete,     biting     in- 
sect. 

Economy — Injurious,  infest  houses. 
Cricket — 

Changes — Incomplete,     biting     in-' 

sect. 

Economy — Injurious,  fields,  homes. 
Sheath-winged  Insects— Coieoptera 
(Beetles)— 
Potato  beetle — 

Changes — Complete,   biting  insect. 
Economy — Injurious,  damage  enor- 


Buffalo  beetle — 

Changes — Complete,  biting  insect. 
Economy — Injurious,   carpets,   clo- 
thing. 
Ladybug  (Not  a  bug  at  all) — 

Economy — Beneficia!,  destroys  in- 
sects. 

Boll  weevil- 
Economy — Injurious,    eats    cotton 

boll. 
Plum  curculio — 

Changes — Complete,  biting  insect. 
Economy — Injurious,    plums,  cher- 
ries, apples. 

Half-winged    Insects— Hemiptera— 
(Bugs) 
Plant  lice — 

Changes — Irregular,     sucking     in- 
sects. 

Economy — Injurious,   plant  juices. 
Scale  bugs  (San  Jose'  and  others) — 
Changes — Complete,     sucking     in- 
sects. 
Economy — Injurious,  orchards, 

trees. 
Squash  bug — 

Changes — Complete,     sucking     in- 
sect. 
Economy — Injurious,     attacks     all 

vines. 
Chinch  bug — 

Changes — Complete,     sucking     in- 
sect. 

Economy — Injurious,  grains,  grass- 
es, corn. 
Bedbug — 

Economy — Injurious,    houses, 

hotels. 
Destroy  with  corrosive  sublimate, 

in  alcohol  and  turpentine. 
Two-winged  Insects— Diptera— 
Typhoid  fly — Common  house  fly. 
Changes — Complete,  biting  insect. 
Economy — Disease    carriers,    scav- 
engers. 
Hessian  fly — 

Changes — Complete,     "flax     seed" 

stage. 
Economy — I  n  j  u  r  i  o  u  s — W  heat 

fields. 
Fleas  and  mosquitos — 

Changes — Complete,  biting  insects. 
Economy — Great  human  pests. 
Botfly- 
Changes — Complete,  parasite. 
Economy — Horse  and  cattle  pest. 


AGRICULTURAL  BOOKLETS 


339 


Scaly-winged  Insects— L  e  p  i  d  o  p  - 
tera — 

Distinguished    between     moths    and 

butterflies. 
Codling  moth — 

Changes — Complete,  biting  insects. 

Economy — Injurious,  apples. 
Cotton  moth     (Army  Worm) — 

Changes — Complete,  biting  insect. 

Economy — Great  damage  to  cotton 

and  oats. 
Cabbage  butterfly — 

Changes — Complete,  biting  insect. 

Economy — Destroys  cabbages. 


How  destroy — Cover  cabbage  with 
flour. 

Membrane-winged  Insects.— Hy- 
menoptera— 

Bees — 

Varieties — :Life  history. 

Changes — Complete,  biting  insects, 

Economy — Beneficial,  honey,  wax, 

etc. 
Ichneumon  flies. — 

Changes — Complete,  parasite. 
Economy — Beneficial,     destroy 
great  numbers  of  insects  annually 


REFERENCES 

References  for  agricultural  booklets  may  be  obtained  from  the  Department 
of  Agriculture,  Washington,  D.  C.,  and  from  your  state  agricultural  college.  Get 
the  list  of  publications  from  these  institutions  and  order  bulletins  on  the  special 
topics  desired.  Most  of  these  bulletins  are  free.  More  complete  books  for  text 
or  reference  purposes  should  be  obtained  of  the  publishers. 

Insects  Injurious  to  Staples  Crops  by  Sanderson,  Insects  Injurious  to  Vege- 
tables by  Chittenden,  Manual  of  Fruit  Insects  by  Slingerland  &  Crosby,  Injurious 
Insects — How  to  Recognize  and  Control  Them  by  O'Kane,  Our  Insect  Friends 
and  Enemies  by  Smith,  and  Spraying  Crops — Why,  When  and  How  to  Weed. 


CHAPTER  XXII 
HORTICULTURE  BOOKLETS 

"Horticulture"  comes  from  two  Latin  words  meaning 
the  cultivation  of  a  garden.  We  can,  therefore,  properly 
place  vegetable  gardening,  fruit  raising,  and  landscape  gar- 
dening under  the  head  of  horticulture.  There  are  many 
interesting  topics  in  this  group  that  can  be  made  subjects 
for  booklet  work.  The  following  list  will  suggest  others: 

Strawberries,  Bush  Fruits,  Apples,  Fruit  Bearing  Trees, 
Citrus  Fruits,  the  Vineyard,  the  Stone  Fruits,  the  Orchard, 
Landscape  Gardening,  the  Vegetable  Garden,  Potatoes,  and 
Market  Gardening. 


STRAWBERRIES 


Where  Grown— 

Almost  every  country  in  the  world. 
More  widely  grown  than  any  other 

fruit. 
Origin- 
South  America — Chile,  most  varieties. 
Wild  strawberry — A  few  varieties. 
Alpine    strawberry — Native    of    Eu- 
rope. 

Everbearing  variety — Not  import- 
ant. 

Location  and  Soil- 
Northern  slope — Retarded  in  spring, 

no  frost. 

Sandy    loam — Rich,    well    drained. 
Warm   soil — Retain   moisture. 

Sod — Likely  to  contain   cutworms, 
etc. 
Cultivated  soil — Corn  or  potato  land 

good. 
Preparation  of  Soil — 

Fertilizer — Heavy      manuring,     or 

commercial. 

Plowing — Shallow,   fall. 
Disking — Thoroughly  worked, 

spring. 

Seed  bed — Loose  on  top,  compact 
below. 


Propagatk 

By  seed — 

Used  in  obtaining  new  varieties. 
By  division  of  old  plants — 

Used      to      propagate      individual 

plants. 
By  runners — 

The  common  way. 

How  done. 

Plants  and  Planting- 
One  year  old  plants — White,  fibrous 

roots — 

Used  for  spring  planting. 
Spring  plants — White  roots — 

Used   for  fall  planting. 
Old  plants— Dark  roots— 

Not  good  for  planting. 
Time  for  planting — 

Spring—  For    northern    climates. 

Fall — For    southern    climates. 
Heeling-in — 

When  dry,  or  when  soil  is  not  ready. 

Open    bunches — Place    in    furrow, 

pack. 
Methods  of  planting — 

Hill    method — For    small    patches, 
hoe. 

Matted   rows — For   large   patches, 
cultivate. 


340 


HORTICULTURE  BOOKLETS 


341 


Set  rows  four  feet  apart,  two  feet 
apart    in     the    row.     Use    corn 
marker  for  large  patch. 
Planting — 

Two    persons — Man    with    spade, 

boy  plants. 

Trowel — For  small  garden  patches. 
Staminate  and  pistillate  varieties, 

hardy. 

Care  During  Summer- 
Cultivation — Horse,  between  rows — 
Shallow — Free   from    weed  t,    mois- 
ture. 

Thin  plants  if  necessary,  cut  run- 
ners. 

Train  runners  with  the  rows. 
Pick  off  all  blossoms. 
Winter  Protection — 

Materials — Straw,  hay,  etc. 
Time — Cover  after  ground  is  frozen. 
Depth — Cover  three  or  more  inches. 
Remove — After    danger    of    frost    in 

spring. 

Place  straw  between  rows,  conserve 
moisture. 


Renewing  Beds- 
After  one  crop — Most  growers  plow 

up. 
Second  year  crop — If  necessary — 

Mow  off  and  burn. 

Plow  furrow  each  side,   leave  one 
foot  wide. 

Manure,    cultivate. 

New  plants,  grown  by  fall. 
Picking  and  Marketing— 

For  home  use — Pick  ripe,  wash. 
For  market — Rather  green,   boxes — 

Sort  berries  for  market. 
Prices — Local,  shipping. 
Strawberry  Diseases  and  Insects- 
Rust  on  leaves — 

Spray    with    Bordeaux    mixture. 

Rake  up  leaves  and  burn. 
White  grub  and  cutworm — 

Do  not  plant  on  sod. 

Rake  and  burn  after  picking. 
Leaf  roller — 

Spray    with   arsenate   of   lead. 


REFERENCES 

Popular  Fruit  Growing  by  Green,  The  A  B  C  of  Strawberry  Culture  by  Terry, 
and  Strawberry  Culturist  by  Fuller. 


THE  ORCHARD 

Every  home  should  have  an  orchard  large  enough  to  at 
least  furnish  the  family  with  all  the  fruit  needed.  There 
are  enough  hardy  varieties  of  orchard  fruits  so  that  even 
in  the  northern  climates  there  should  be  no  lack  of  fruit. 
A  small  outlay  and  a  little  care  will  bring  the  desired  re- 
sults. 


Location  of  the  Orchard — 

Northern    exposure — Usually    best — • 

Prevents  freezing  in  spring. 

Prevents  injuring  from  hot  winds 

in  summer. 
Near   body   of   water — 

More  even  temperature. 
Drainage- 
Air  drainage — 

High    spots — Cold    air    in    valleys. 

Rolling  lands. 


Soil  drainage — 

Natural — High    and   rolling   lands. 
Tile — Between    rows   if    necessary. 
Home  Orchard- 
Plant  where  most  convenient. 

Not    always    ideal    location. 
The  Soil— 

Hardpan  subsoil — To  be  avoided. 

Gravel   and   sand — Not   good. 

Heavy  clay  loam — Too   slow. 

Light  clay  loam — Best. 

Hardwood    soil — Usually   good. 


342 


RURAL  EDUCATION 


Preparation- 
Cultivated  land  best. 

Fertilizers — Rotted     manure,     green 
manure. 

Plowing — Fall,  very  deep. 

Disking  and  harrowing — Spring. 
Orchard  Stock— 

From  reliable  nurseries. 

Get  stock  early. 

Heeling  in — Cover  roots  in  trenches. 

Size  of  trees — One  to  three  years  old. 

Grafted  stock — Root,  scion. 

Head  the  tree  low. 


Know  varieties  best  suited  to  local- 
ity. 
Varieties  for  Norwest— 

Apples — Duchess,  Hibernal,  Patten's 
Greening,  Okabena,  Wealthy,  Ma- 
linda,  Anisim,  Iowa  Beauty,  Mil- 
waukee, Jewel  s  Winter. 

Crabs  and  hybirds — Whitney,  Flor- 
ence, Strawberry,  Minnesota,  Tran- 
scendent. 

Plums  and  hydribs — DeSoto,  Forest 
Garden,  Wolf,  Wyatt,  Stoddard, 
Terry. 


Figure  120.     A  well  kept  young  apple  orchard. 


Courtesy  of  The  Farmer. 


Planting- 
Distance     between     trees — Twenty- 
five  to  thirty  feet. 
Arrangement — Some      definite      sys- 
tem— 
Triangular  system — More  trees  to 

acre. 

Square  plan — For  small  orchards. 
Straight     rows — Beauty,     conven- 
ience. 

Planting     board — Accuracy. 
Trim  roots — About  eight  inches  long. 
Depth — Plant  deeper  than  in  nursery. 
Firm     soil     around     tree — Two-inch 
mulch  on  top. 


Moisture — Do  not  water  unless  very 

dry. 

Training  the  Tree- 
Cut  top  to  within  two  feet. 

Prune  each  spring. 

Low,  well  formed  top  desired. 
Cultivation— 

To    secure    rapid    growth. 

Use  disk  and  harrow. 
Protection— • 

Do  not  cultivate  too  close. 

Wrappers  protect  from   sun   scald. 

Soil  mounted  around  crowns  in  fall. 

Snow     sheds — Prevent    breaking 
branches. 


HORTICULTURE  BOOKLETS  343 


Washes — Protect   from   insects.  Home     markets — Keeping    apples. 

Spraying — Keeps   trees   healthy.  Selling  on   the   trees. 

Marketing  Fruit—  Picking    and    packing. 

REFERENCES 

Popular  Fruit  Growing  by  Green,  Productive  Orcharding  by  Sears,  and  Prin- 
ciples of  Fruit  Growing  by  Bailey. 

THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN 

Whether  in  town  or  country  every  home  should  have  its 
vegetable  garden.  No  spot  pays  so  well,  and  the  pleasure 
one  derives  from  contact  with  the  garden  on  a  pleasant 
spring  morning  or  summer  evening  is  more  than  its  money 
value.  Without  a  garden,  fewer  vegetables  are  used,  as 
they  must  be  purchased,  and  the  cost  of  living  is  increased 
to  the  extent  that  more  high  priced  meat  and  groceries 
must  take  their  place.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  leave  part  of 
the  garden  work  to  the  women  and  children,  but  not  all  of 
it.  The  preparation  of  the  soil,  laying  out  the  garden  so  that 
machinery  can  be  used,  and  part  of  the  work  should  be 
done  by  the  men.  The  .  garden  should  contain  a  good 
variety  of  vegetables  for  use  from  early  spring  until  late 
fall.  A  few  simple  tools  kept  sharp,  and  a  garden  drill  for 
sowing  and  cultivating,  if  the  patch  is  large,  are  necessary 
for  good  results. 

Location   of  Vegetable    Garden—  Similar  plants  should  be  together. 
Near  the  house — Saves   time.  Neatness  and  beauty — Straight  rows 
Fenced   in — Or   fence    chicken   yard.  symmetrical. 
Classes  of  Gardens—  Soil- 
Market  garden—  Sandy  loam— Clay  subsoil— 

Planning— Grow    for    demands    of  Rich   soii_Barnyard    manure   well 

market.  rotted 

Marketmg-Dehvery,    packing,  Commercial  fertilizers-Nitrate  of 

transportation.  goda    etc 
Home  Garden — 

May  be  part  of  market  garden.  Southern  slope- 
Small    kitchen    garden.  Warmer   ln    earlv    *»™*- 
\rraneement—  Best  for  vines,  npemng  tomatoes, 
Must  be  more  or  less  permanent—  melons,  etc. 

Perennials— Together,    cultivation.  Preparation    for    planting- 
Plan    the   garden— On   paper   during  Plowed  in  fall— Kill  weeds  and  in- 
winter.  sects- 

Rows  far  apart — Use  horse  for  cul-  Disked  and  harrowed  in  spring, 

tivating.  Free  from  clods,  sticks,  stones,  etc. 


344 


RURAL  EDUCATION 


Hotheads  and  Cold  Frames— 

Hotbed  started  early — 

Size — As  wide  as  sash  used  and  any 

length. 
Location — South    side    of    building 

or  fence. 
Manure — Horse    manure,  depth,  a 

foot  or  more. 

Glass — Use    ordinary    storm    sash. 
Ventilation — After   seventy-five  or 

eighty  degrees. 
Watering — Each  morning. 
Plants — Early     plants     for     trans- 
planting. 
Cold  frame — 

Use — For  transplanting  from  hot- 
bed. 

Transplant  to  garden  as  desired. 
Cover  only  when  in  danger  of  frost. 
Planting  Garden— 
From  cold  frames — 
For  early  use. 

Main  crop  after  danger  of  frost. 
Hardy  vegetables — 

As  early  as  ground  can  be  worked. 
Onions,  carrots,  peas,  etc. 
Main  crop— Later  than  hardy  vari- 
eties. 

Vines — After   danger   of    all    frost   is 
past. 

For   fall   use — Late   plantings. 
Methods  of  plantings — 

Hand  planting  for  small  amounts. 
Garden  drill  for  large  garden. 
Firming — When   ground   is   dry. 
Cultivation- 
Hoeing   and   hand    cultivators — 
For  small  gardens. 
After   large   cultivators  in   market 

gardens. 
Horse  cultivators — 

More  effective — Save  time. 
Time  of  cultivation — 

Often  enough  to  kill  weeds. 
After  rain  to  conserve  moisture. 
From  early  spring  to  late  fall. 
Friends  and  Foes- 
Garden      friends — 

Animals — Toads,      frogs,      snakes, 

some  birds. 
Imsects — Ladybug,  bees,  ants,  Ich- 

neumen  fly. 
Garden  foes — 

Animals — Chickens,    gophers, 

birds,  etc. 

Insects — Squash  bug,  potato  beetle, 
cabbage  butterfly,  cutworm,  etc. 


Plant  diseases — Potatoes  scab  and 

rot,  etc. 
Weeds — Consume  nourishment  and 

moisture. 
Harvesting— 

As  needed  during  growing  season. 
In  the  fall- 
Care   in   gathering. 
Selecting,   grading,    and   storing. 
Suggestive  Vegetables  to  Grow— 
Tubers — Underground     stems.     (Po- 
tatoes)— 

Early  varieties — Early  Rose,  Early 
Ohio,  Cobbler,  Eureka  Extra, 
Noroton  Beauty,  and  Triumph. 
Late  varieties — Burbank,  Carmen, 
Rural,  Walter  Raleigh,  and  Pin- 
gree. 

Roots — Root  of  plant  developed  for 
food- 
Require  heavy  rich  soil. 
Kinds — Carrots,  parsnips,  turnips, 
beets,    rutabagas,    radish,    sweet 
potatoes,  and  salsify. 
Bulbs- 
Onions — Several    varieties,     sandy 

loam. 

Seed  vegetables — 
Peas  and  beans. 
Leaf  plants — 

Kinds — Cabbage,    cauliflower,    cel- 
ery, lettuce,  spinach,  kohl  rabi, 
Swiss  chard,  cress  and  kale. 
Special   care   needed   for   many   of 

these. 
Vines — 

Planting     time — Late,     danger     of 

frost. 

Kinds — Watermelon,     muskmelon, 
squash,  pumpkin,  citron  and  cu- 
cumber. 
Herbs- 
Used    for    flavoring. 
Kinds — Sage,    mint,    summer    and 
winter  savories,  lavender,  annis, 
dill,   and   thyme. 
Corn — 

Sweet — For  table  use  and  canning. 
Pop — For  winter  use. 
Fruit  vegetables — 

Grown  for  the  fruit  of  the  plant. 
Kinds — Tomatoes,  ground  cherries, 

etc. 
Perennials — 

Remain  in  garden  from  j'ear  to  year. 
Kinds — Rhubarb,      horse      radish, 
asparagus,  etc. 


HORTICULTURE  BOOKLETS 


345 


Courtesy  of  The  F; 
Figure  127.      Preparing  the  soil  for  a  school  garden. 


Courtesy  of  The  Farmer. 

Figure  128.     Caring  for  the  school  garden  during  the  summer. 

REFERENCES 

Good  books  for  the  library  are  Green's  Vegetable  Gardening,  Gardening  for 
Pleasure  by  Henderson,  Success  in  Market-Gardening  by  Rawson,  Productive 
Vegetable  Growing  by  Lloyd,  and  Garden  Farming  by  Corbett. 


CHAPTER  XXIII 
ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY  BOOKLETS 

Animals  are  always  interesting  to  children.  The  boy  or 
girl  who  has  not  had  a  pet  lamb,  chicken,  duck,  colt  or 
some  other  animal,  has  missed  a  great  deal.  The  work  in 
this  branch  of  general  agriculture  in  the  elementary  school 
is  more  difficult  to  teach,  because  it  is  hard  to  study  the 
animals  at  first  hand.  The  booklet  plan  will  help  solve 
this  problem,  however,  and,  if  the  students  will  observe  the 
animals  at  home,  and  the  school  take  a  few  field  excursions 
to  supplement  the  outlines  suggested,  the  study  may  become 
delightful. 

The  production  of  live  stock  is  one  of  the  greatest  indus- 
tries in  the  country.  With  the  present  demand  far  in 
excess  of  the  supply  in  nearly  all  branches  of  live  stock,  it 
would  seem  that  something  besides  high  prices  is  neces- 
sary to  stimulate  still  greater  interest  in  stock  raising.  The 
great  ranges  for  feeding  sheep  and  cattle  are  practically 
gone.  The  bulk  of  the  live  stock  for  the  markets  must, 
therefore,  be  raised  on  the  farms.  Since  stock  raising  is 
always  more  profitable  than  grain  farming,  and  the  produc- 
tion of  a  reasonable  amount  of  live  stock  makes  possible  a 
well  balanced  rotation  plan,  animal  husbandry  would  seem 
to  be  a  very  important  subject  for  the  rural  schools,  and  to 
provide  an  excellent  opportunity  to  do  practical  work  in 
arithmetic,  in  computing  rations,  etc.,  and  to  get  practice 
in  composition  in  the  booklet  work. 

A  great  number  of  topics  present  themselves  as  suit- 
able for  animal  husbandry  booklets.  Among  them  are  the 
following:  Poultry  for  Pleasure  and  Profit,  Farm  Animals, 
The  Care  of  Animals,  Veterinary  Science  on  the  Farm, 

346 


ANIMAL  HU8BANDY  BOOKLETS 


347 


Swine,  Sheep  Raising,  Horses,  the  Dairy,  Creameries  and 
Cheese  Factories,  Animal  Diseases,  Beef  Raising,  Silos  and 
Silage,  How  to  Feed  Animals  and  Bee  Culture. 

POULTRY  OUTLINE 


The  Poultry  Industry- 
Distribution — All  parts  of  the  world. 

Value — Over  twenty  billion  dollars  a 
year  in    United   States. 

Profitable,    if   properly   handled. 
Poultry  Includes — 

Chickens — Most  important. 

Turkeys — Bring  highest  prices. 

Ducks  and  gesse — Foragers. 

Other    fowls — Not    important    com- 
mercially. 
Origin   of   Domesticated   Poultry— 

Fowls — Wild  jungle  fowl  of  India. 

Turkeys — From  wild  turkey  of  Amer- 
ica. 

Ducks  and  geese — Native  to  America 

and  Europe. 
Housing  of  Poultry- 
Selection  of  site — Dry  ground,  south- 
ern exposure. 

Furnishings  movable — Cleaned  easily. 

Roosts   comfortable — Two   by   fours, 
no  cracks. 

Curtains — For  cold  weather. 

Ventilation, — Muslin      windows      no 
draughts. 

Floor — Wooden  better  than  cement. 

Number    together — Not    over    fifty. 

Special  roosts — For  ducks  and  geese. 

Sanitation — Clean,    whitewashed,    no 
vermin. 

Nests — Partly    hidden,    comfortable. 
Breeding  Poultry — 

Pure  bred  stock  most  profitable. 

Common  stock  improved — 

By  buying  standard  bred  fowls. 
By  buying  pure  bred  eggs. 
By    selecting    the    best    stock    for 
mating. 

Care  of  eggs  for  hatching — Must  be 
fresh. 

Hatching  the  eggs — 

With  hens — In  small  flocks. 
Incubators — Used  for  large  flocks. 
Feeds  and  Feeding- 
Grain  feeds — 

Corn — One  third  of  feed  for  grow- 
ing stock,  nearly  all  corn  for  fat- 
tening. 


Wheat — Screenings,  use  as  scratch 

feed. 
Oats — Sprouted,    good    for    laying 

hens. 

Barley — Good  for  fattening. 
Buckwheat  and  millet — Mixed  with 

other  feed. 
Cracked    mixtures — G  o  o  d    for 

scratch  feed. 
Green    feeds — For    chickens    not    on 

range. 

Sprouted  grains — Oats,  barley,  etc. 
Clover,  alfalfa. 
Roots — Mangels,     turnips,     beets, 

and  cabbage. 
Grit  and  shells- 
Lime — For    laying    hens. 
Coarse   sand    and    gravel. 
Ground    and    crushed    rock. 
Oyster  and  other  shells. 
Meat  feeds — 

Beef  scraps,  bits  from  the  table,  etc. 
Wet  and  dry  feeding — 

Wet    mash    at    noon — Corn,    oats, 

bran,  shorts. 
Dry   mash  in   self-feeding   hopper, 

same  mixture. 
Balanced  diet — Work  out  a  balanced 

ration. 

Diseases  of  Poultry- 
Diseases — 

Gapes — Worms  in  the  windpipe. 
Cholera — Germ  disease,  contagious. 
Roup — Cold  appears,  in  winter  and 

spring. 
Pests — 

Mites — Appear  in   warm   weather, 

filthy  house. 
Lice— Body  and  head. 
Remedies  and  preventives — 
Disinfectant  in  water  and  feed. 
Patent      remedies      applied      with 

feather. 
Kerosene  on  roosts  and   heads  of 

birds. 

Fumigate  with  sulphur. 
Boxes  for  dust  baths. 
Eggs— 

Gathered  daily  and  kept  clean. 


348 


RURAL  EDUCATION 


Market  often  in  warm  weather. 
Laws  for  protecting  the  public. 
Records — Get  sheets  from  experiment 

station. 

Sell  only  uniform  size. 
Marketing- 
Eggs — See  above, 
poultry- 
Alive — Shipped  in  crates. 
Dressed — Local  and  city  markets. 
Breeds  best  adapted. 
Standard  Bred  Poultry- 
Term  means  pure  bred  stock, 
American  Poultry  Association  deter- 
mines standards. 
Poultry  shows  and  exhibitions. 
Meat  Breeds — 

Brahmas — Light  and  dark — 

Weight — Nine  to  twelve  pounds. 
Meat  rather  coarse. 
Cochins — Black,  white  and  partridge. 
Weight — Nearly  as  large  as  Brah- 
mas. 

Feathered  legs. 
Langshans — Black  and  white — 

Smaller  and  more  active  than  the 

others. 

Egg  Breeds- 
Leghorn — Several     varieties,      single 
and  rose  comb — 
Native  of  Italy. 

Active — Great     layers,     hard     to 
fatten. 


Minorca — Black,    white,    single    and 

rose  comb — 

Native  island  of  Minorca. 

Large  eggs. 
Hamburgs — Several  varieties — 

Active — Small  eggs. 

Native  of  Germany. 
Andalusions — Dove  color — 

Not  so  common  as  the  others. 
General  Purpose  Breeds- 
Plymouth  Rock — A  great  favorite — 

Originated  in  Massachusetts. 

Barred,  white,  buff,  partridge,  silver 
penciled. 

All  single  combs. 
Wyandotte — A  little  smaller  than  the 

Rocks — 

American  breed. 

White,    silver   laced,    golden,    buff, 
black,      partridge,      and      silver 
penciled. 
Orpington — Large,   plump   chicken — 

English  bred. 

White,  black,  buff,  jubilee. 
Rhode    Island    Red — Meat    excellent 

flavor — 

Cross  from  all  known  varieties. 

Rose  and  single  comb  varieties. 
Other  breeds  for  general  purpose — 

Java — Black  and  mottled. 

Dominique — Resemble     Plymouth 
Rock. 


Figtre  129.     White  Wyandotte 
cockerel. 


Figure  130. 


White  Wyandotte 
pullet. 


ANIMAL  HUSBANDY  BOOKLETS 


349 


Dorking — White,   silver   gray,   col- 
ored. 
Houdan — French    breed,    crest    on 

head. 
Cornish     Indian —  Meat    excellent 

flavor. 
Fancy  Breeds — 

Ornamental,  not  practical. 

Kinds— Game,  Polish,  Sultan,  Silky, 

Bantam. 
Ducks— 

Pekin — Perhaps  the  most  popular — 
Originated  in  China. 
Good  for  meat  and  eggs. 
Rouen — Resembles  the  wild  mallard. 
Originated  in  England. 
General  purpose. 

Aylesbury — Larger  than  Pekin — 
Originated  in  England. 
Meat  variety  chiefly. 
Indian     Runner — Small,     erect    pos- 
ture— 

Called  Leghorn  of  the  duck  family. 
Great  egg  producer. 


Black  Cayuga — Dark  color — 

Originated  in  America. 

General  purpose. 
Muscovy — Hiss,  rather  than  quack — 

Originated  in  South  America. 

Do  not  resemble  other  breeds. 

Meat  cannot  be  equaled  in  flavor. 

Male  very  large,  female  small. 

Fine  layers,  and  good  setters. 
Geese— 

Toulouse — Very    large,    gray,     have 

pouch. 

Embden — White,  develop  early. 
African — Finer     grained     flesh     than 

others. 
Chinese — Small,    not    profitable    for 

farm. 
Turkeys— 

Origin — All     from      American      wild 

turkey. 
Breeds — 

Bronze — Largest,   most  popular. 

Narragansett — Gray,  quiet. 

White  Holland — Lays  well,  quiet. 

Others — Buff,   Slate,   Black,   Bour- 
bon Red. 


REFERENCES 

Progressive  Poultry  Culture  by  Brigham,  Productive  Poultry  Husbandry  by 
Lewis,  Principles  and  Practice  of  Poultry  Culture  by  Robinson,  Farm  Poultry  by 
Watson,  and  Poultry  by  Lippincott. 


CATTLE 


Origin- 
Most  of  our  cattle  are  developed  from 

English  breeds. 

From  cross  with  American  buffalo. 
Beef  Breeds — 
General  features — 

Block  type,  ability  to  take  on  flesh. 

Low,  broad,  deep. 
Shorthorn  or  Durham — 

English  origin. 

Best  known  beef  type. 
Hereford— Called  "white  faces"— 

English  origin,  large,  over  a  ton. 

Becoming  very  popular. 
Aberdeen  Angus — Hornless — 

Scotch  origin. 
Large     proportion     of     meat      when 

dressed. 
Red   Poll — Medium  size,   harmless — 

English  origin. 


General  purpose. 

Galloway — Hardy  breed,  hornless — 
Scotch  origin. 
Hide  used  for  robes. 
Others — Devon  Brown,  Swiss. 
Raising  beef  animals — 

Breeding,   housing,   pasturing,   fat- 
tening. 

Marketing — Local    and   city    mar- 
kets. 
The  packing  houses — 

Location,  products,  by-products. 
Comparison     of     prices    with    live 

stock. 

Dairy  Breeds- 
General  features — 
Angular  in  form. 
Large  udder. 

Large    capacity    for    turning    feed 
into  milk. 


350 


RURAL  EDUCATION 


Figure  131.     The  dairy  type. 

The  Jersey — Most  popular  in  United 

States — 

Native  to  Island  of  Jersey. 

Rich  milk,  not  large  quantity. 
Guernsey — Very  popular  in  some  sec- 
tions— 

Native  to  Island  of  Guernsey. 

Milk  yellow,  more  than  Jerseys. 
Holstein-Friesians — 

Originated  in  Holland. 

Large  flow   ot    milk — Good   cheese 

milk. 
Ayrshire — 

Scotch- origin. 

Much  milk,  not  rich  in  butter  fat. 
Other  Breeds— Dutch  Belted,  Kerry, 

French  Canadian. 
Care  of  dairy  herd — 

Breeding,  housing,  pasturing. 

Balanced  rations  tor  dairy  cattle. 

Herd  and  individual  record. 
Dairy  products — 

Milk,  cream,  butter,  cheese,  etc. 

High  butter  tat  records. 

Laws  regulating  dairy  products. 
Machinery  used — 

Milking  machines — Not  in  general 
Use. 

Cream  separators — Keeping  clean. 

Apparatus  for  weighing  and  record- 
ing milk. 


Courtesy  of  The  Farmer. 

A  pure  bred  Guernsey  cow. 

Babcock  tester — To  determine  but- 
ter fat. 
"Scrubs"— 

These     are     mixed     breeds     and     no 

breeds. 

Are  not  profitable  tor  milk  or  beef. 
Diseases   of  Cattle- 
Tuberculosis — 

Poorly  ventilated  barns. 
Tuberculin    test— How    given,    re- 
sults. 

Transmitted    in    milk. 
Anthrax — 

Spores  of  germs  very  resistant. 
Other  diseases — 

Blackleg,    lockjaw,   pneumonia. 
Preventives — Sprays,    fresh    air — 
Disinfectants — Bichloride    of   mer- 
cury, chloride  of  lime,  formalde- 
hyde,   carbolic    acid,    cresol. 
How   to   disinfect  stables. 
Value  of  Cattle— 
To  the  farm — 

Produce  meat  and  dairy  products. 
Produce  cheap  fertilizer. 
Permit  a  rotation  plan  to   be  fol- 
lowed. 
To  the  nation — 

Dairy  products  are  second  only  to 

corn. 

Beef  cattle  rank  next  to  dairy  pro- 
ducts. 


ANIMAL  HUSBANDY  BOOKLETS 


351 


REFERENCES 

Beginnings   in    Animal    Husbandry   by    Plumb,    Types   and    Breeds   of    Farm 
Animals  by  Plumb,  and  Dairy  Cattle  and  Milk  Production  by  Eckles. 


HOGS 


Importance- 
Relation  to  corn  and  grain  growing. 
Value  in  the  United  States! 
Lard  Type- 
General  features — 

Capable  of  taking  on  fat. 

Thick  body,  snort  head,  short  legs. 
Poland  China- 
Originated  in  Ohio. 

Black,  with  white  on  face,  tail  and 

feet. 
Berkshire — 

English  origin. 

Erect  ears,  snout  upturned. 
Chester  White — 

Originated  in  Pennsylvania. 


Drooping    ears — Rather    slow    ma- 
turing. 
Duroc  Jersey — 

American  origin. 

Red   color,   ears  droop   forward. 
Bacon  Type- 
General  features — 

Produced  for  side  meat  or  bacon. 

Long  body   and   legs,   long   snout. 
Large  Yorkshire — 

English  origin. 

White  color,  ears  erect,  large  size. 
Tamworth — 

English  bred. 

Red   color,   long  deep   body,  long 
snout. 


Figure  132.     The  lard  type. 


Courtesy  of  The  Farme 

A  pure  bred  Poland  China. 


Other  breeds — 

The  Thin   Rind,  or   Hampshire. 

The   Razor-backs   of   the   South. 
Breeding- 
Select  a  breed  and  build  it  up. 

By  selection. 

By  new  blood. 


Housing — 

Hog    houses — How    built. 

Keeping  clean. 
Care   of  young   pigs. 
Feeds  and  Feeding— 
For  growing. 
For  fattening. 
Balanced  rations. 


352 


RURAL  EDUCATION 


Diseases  of  Hogs- 
Cholera — Causes,    remedies,    preven- 
tives. 
Other  diseases. 

Curing  Pork—- 
At the  packing  houses. 


Products    and    by-products. 
On  the  farm — 
Salted  pork. 
Dried  pork. 
Smoked   hams   and    bacons. 


REFERENCES 

Beginnings  in  Animal  Husbandry  by  Plumb,  Types  and  Breeds  of  Farm 
Animals  by  Plumb,  Productive  Swine  Husbandry  by  Day,  and  Swine  Husbandry 
by  Coburn. 

HORSES 


Figure  133.     The  draft  type. 

History  of  the  Horse- 
Prehistoric  horse — 

Twelve  different  stages  shown  by 
fossils  from  five  toes  to  solipeds. 
Driven  from  early  home  in  woods 
by  other  animals,  and  life  on 
plains  developed  the  single  toe 
of  the  hoof. 


Courtesy  ot  The  Farmer. 
A  pure  bred  Percheron. 

Original  horse  only  the  size  of  the 

fox. 
Historic  horse — 

First  mentioned  in  1712  B.  C.  when 

Joseph  exchanged  horses  for  corn. 
Xenephon  described  a  war  horse. 
First  domesticated  in  Egypt  and 

Arabia. 


ANIMAL  HU  SB  ANDY  BOOKLETS 


353 


American  horses  all  imported.    The 
"Broncho"    escaped    from    early 
Spanish  explorers. 
Uses— 

Probably  first  used  in  war  by  the  an- 
cients. 
Later  used  in  chariot  races  by  Greeks 

and  Romans. 
Valuable   for   farm    work. 
Hauling  loads  and  vehicles. 
Saddle  and  driving  horses. 
Types- 
Draft:  Suited  to  farm  work  and  heavy 

hauling — 

Percheron — Most  popular  in  Amer- 
ica, native  of  France;  gray  and 
black  in  color;  docile;  active,  and 
has  excellent  feet. 

Clydesdale — Draft  horse  of  Scot- 
land and  popular  in  America; 
color  usually  bay  or  brown,  ra- 
pid walkers;  "feathery"  legs. 

Belgian — Bred  in  Belgium;  broad 
back;  short  legs;  small  feet;  chest- 
nut bay  and  brown  color. 

English  Shire — Popular  in  England ; 
short  legs,  large  feet;  slow  walk- 
er; bay  or  brown  with  white 
lower  legs  and  forehead. 

Suffolk — Originated  in  Suffolk 
county,  England;  common  farm 
horse  of  that  country;  chestnut 
color;  small  ears;  powerful  body. 

French  draft — Larger  than  Per- 
cheron, but  not  so  popular. 

Coach:  Stylish  and  lighter  than 
draft  horses. 

Hackney — Blocky    form;    gait    at-   . 
tractive;    several    colors;    "high 
stepper;"   most  popular  carriage 
horse. 

German — Not   well   established   in 


America;    long    neck    and    legs; 
general    purpose    horse. 
French — Long  stride;  good  action, 
various  colors;  popular  in  France. 
Cleveland      Bay — English     origin; 
largest    of    type;    bay    in    color; 
poor  action. 
Roadster:    Small    head    and    pointed 

ears;   speed — 

American     Trotter     or     Standard 

Bred — Most   noted    families   are 

Hambletonians,  Clays,  Morgana, 

Pilots  and  Hals  American  Breed. 

Saddlers:  Saddle  or  harness  horse  — 

Arabian — Original      breed;      speed 

type. 
Thoroughbred — E  n  g  I  i  s  h    saddle 

horse. 

American — From  Arabian  and  thor- 
oughbreds. 
Pony:  Small  horses  of  both  draft  and 

speed   types — 
Shetland — Shetland  Islands;  gentle 

for  children. 
Welch— Wales. 

Indian    Ponies — Western    U.    S. 
Mustang    Broncho  —  Western 

plains. 
Hybirds— 

Mules — Not    a    true    breed;    cross 
between    a    donkey    and    horse, 
hardy;  long  lived;  fine  draft  ani- 
mals. 

Care  of  Horses- 
Proper  shelter. — 
Kind  of  stables. 
Cost. 
Feeding — 

In    summer    and    winter. 
Balanced  rations. 
Training — 
At   what  age? 
How  "broken." 


REFERENCES 

Beginnings   in   Animal    Husbandry   by   Plumb,    Types  and   Breeds  of   Farm 
Animals  by  Plumb,  Productive  Horse  Husbandry  by  Gay. 


BIRDS  THAT  I  KNOW 

Classes  of  Birds- 
Land  birds. 
Water  birds. 
Game  birds. 
Birds  of  prey. 

Migration- 
Birds  that  do  not  migrate. 

23— 


Birds  that  go  South  for  the  winter. 
Make  a  table  of  migration  with  datea 
Bird  Protection- 
National  and  state  laws. 
Dangers  from  cold  and  wet. 
Cats   and    other    animals. 
Bird  houses. 


354 


RURAL  EDUCATION 


Bird  Study—- 
From books. 
In  the  field. 
Field  glasses. 
Notebook. 

Injurious  Birds;  Destroy— 
English  Sparrow — 

Feeds  on  grains  almost  entirely. 
Common    in    every    community. 
Kingfisher — 

Blue-gray  in  color;  loud,  harsh  call. 
Around  ponds,  lakes  and  rivers. 
Feeds  on  fish,  frogs,  lizards. 
American  crow — 

The  common  black  crow. 
More   injurious   than    beneficial. 
Beneficial  Birds:  Protect— 
House  wren — 

Brown    color;    small. 
Feeds  wholly   upon  insects. 
Song  sparrow — 

Most   abundant  of   all   our   birds; 

pleasing   song. 

Larger  than  English  sparrow;  red- 
dish brown  back. 
Feeds  on  insects,    grass  and   weed 

seeds. 
Orchard  oriole — 

Male,  chestnut  and  black;  female 
yellowish   and  gray;   7%   inches 
long. 
Feeds  on  insects  chiefly;  about  15% 

fruit    and    grain. 
Bank  swallow — 

Lives  in  holes  in  banks  of  earth; 

smallest  of  swallows. 
Feeds  wholly  on  insects. 
Barn  swallow — 

Builds    nests   in    barns    and    other 

buildings. 
Most    graceful    and    beautiful    of 

swallows. 

Feeds  on  insects  almost  entirely. 
Blue  jay — 

Very  beautiful;  large;  noisy. 
Feeds  on  insects,  mice,  weed  seed 

and  grain. 
Cardinal — 

Male,  red;  female,  gray. 
Feeds  on  insects  and  weed  seed. 
Red-winged  blackbird — 

Male,  black  with  red  shoulders;  fe- 
males, brownish  black. 


Feeds  on  cutworms,  grasshoppers 

plant  lice,  grain,  fruit  and  small 

animals. 
Red-headed  woodpecker — 

Adults  have  entire  head  and  breast 

red. 
Feeds    on    injurious    insects,    wild 

fruit,  weed  seed,  birds'  eggs. 
Killdeer— 

Easily  recognized  by  its  call. 
Feeds      entirely      upon      injurious 

insects. 
Quail  or  "Bob  White" — 

The  common  game  bird  of  America. 
Feeds  on  weed  seed,  injurious  in- 
sects, fruits  and  grain. 
Dove- 
Useful    for    food,    but    should    be 

protected. 
Feeds   on    weed    seed    chiefly,    and 

grains  left  on  the  ground  in  the 

fields. 
Screech  owl — 

Very  useful;  recognized  from  call. 
Feeds   on   rats,    English    sparrows, 

cutworms,    caterpillars,    crickets, 

etc. 
Barn  owl — 

Found  around  buildings. 
Feeds  on  mice,  rats,  rabbits,  etc. 
Buzzard — 

Beneficial  to  public  health. 
Feeds  almost  entirely  upon  carrion. 
Hum  ming-bird — 

Very  small,  not  much  larger  than 

bumble  bee. 
Feeds    on    gnats,     ants,     parasitic 

wasps,    as    well    as    nectar   from 

trees  and  flowers. 
Cowbird — 

Male,   greenish   black   with   brown 

head;   female,    dull    gray.     Lays 

eggs    in    others    bird    nests    and 

leaves  young  to  be  cared  for. 
Found    among    cattle,    hence    the 

name.     Feeds  on  gnats,  flies  and 

other  insects. 
Meadow  lark — 

Beautiful    songster;    brown    back, 

yellow  underneath. 
Found    perched    on   post   or   other 

object. 
Feeds  on  insects  chiefly. 


by 


REFERENCES 

Our  Common  Birds  and  How  to   Know  Them  by  Grant,  Our  Native  Birds 
Lange,  Bird  Neighbors  by  Blanchan,  Bird  Guide  by  Reed,  and  Field  Book  of 


American    Wild    Birds   and    Their    Music    by    Matthews. 


CHAPTER  XXIV 


HOME  ECONOMICS  BOOKLETS 

If  the  sewing  and  hot  lunch  work  is  carried  out  as  sug- 
gested in  the  chapters  on  those  subjects,  the  present  out- 
lines for  booklets  for  the  language  classes  will  supplement 
that  work.  If  the  school  is  not  doing  sewing  or  serving, 
then  the  home  economic  booklets  are  all  the  more  nec- 
essary. Reference  for  this  work  can  be  obtained  free  of 
charge  from  the  state  and  national  Departments  of  Agri- 
culture and  from  library  books. 

A  suggestive  list  of  topics  suitable  for  booklets  is  given: 
Household  Management,  Home  Sanitation,  Home  Con- 
veniences, Flies  and  Their  Control,  The  Kitchen  Garden, 
Home  Decoration,  Home  Furnishings,  Contagious  and  Infec- 
tious Diseases,  Human  Foods,  Canning  without  Powders, 
Bread  Baking,  Egg  Cookery,  The  Fireless  Cooker,  Paper 
Bag  Cookery,  Pure  Milk,  Dairy  Products,  Garment  Making, 
The  Clothes  Moth,  How  Needles  and  Pins  Are  Made,  But- 
ton Manufactures,  How  Cloth  Is  Made,  How  Common  Salt 
Is  Made,  Curing  Meats. 

FLIES  AND  THEIR  CONTROL 


Classification— 

Diptera,  or  two-winged. 
Biting  and  lapping  insects. 
House  Fly,  or  Typhoid  Fly- 
Home — 

In  filthy  places. 

In  barns  and  houses. 
Disease  carrier — 

Typhoid  fever. 

Tuberculosis. 

Dysentery. 
Sources  of  disease  germs — 

Outhouses. 

Dead  animals,  dump  grounds. 

Barnyard  manure. 

Garbage  cans. 


Infected  persons. 
Spitting  on  walks,  floors,  etc. 
Life  history  of  fly — 

Adult   lives  over   winter  in    warm 

place. 

Pupa  is  protected  over  winter. 
Emerges  first  warm  days  of  spring. 
Female    lays    about    one    hundred 

eggs. 

Maggots  hatch  in  eight  hours. 
Maggots  full  grown  in  six  days. 
Fupa  stage  three  to  five  days. 
Full  grown  fly  in  about  twelve  days. 
Rate  of  increase  enormous — 

Figure  the  increase  of  one  fly  for 

season. 


355 


356 


RURAL  EDUCATION 


Checked  by  natural  means. 
Control  of  flies — 

Screens — For  doors,  windows,  out- 
houses. 

Allow     no     barnyard     manure     to 
collect. 

Remove  all  garbage  piles. 

Have  garbage  pail  with  cover. 

Have  septic  tank — Do  away  with 
outhouses. 

Poison  with  formalin  in  milk  and 
water  mixture. 

Protect  all  food. 

Fly    contests — Children    collecting 

for  prizes. 
Flytraps — 

The  Minnesota  trap — Agricultural 
Experiment  Station. 

Homemade  traps — Costfe  w  cents. 

Quite  effective. 


Bait  important — Bread   and   milk, 

meat. 

Stock  Flies- 
Varieties — 

Horn    flies — Cluster   around   horns 

of  cattle. 
Stable    flies — Resemble    house    fly, 

but  bite. 
The    botfly — Maggot  Attached    to 

stomach  of  horse. 
Feeding  habits — 
Blood  of  animals. 
Nectar  of  flowers. 
Preventives — 

Currying  horses  and  cattle. 

Solution  with  strong  odor. 

Darkened  stables. 

Sprays. 

Ointments  and  kerosene. 


REFERENCES 

Bulletins  and  books  on  insects,  sanitation,  etc. 


HOUSEHOLD  FRIENDS  AND  FOES— (Bacteria) 


Dust- 
Where  Found- 
City  homes — Street  dust. 
Country    homes — Road    and    field 

dust. 
Ships   at   sea — Coal   and    meteoric 

dust. 

Everywhere — Atmosphere. 
Necessity  of  Dust — 
No  life  without  dust. 
No  light  without  dust  particles. 
Movements  of  Dust — 
Winds. 

Air  currents  as  we  move  through  it. 
Composition  of  Dust — 

Particles  of  wood  and  coal. 

Bits  of  clothing,  house  furnishings, 

etc. 
Process    of    wearing    away    in    all 

things. 

Home  of  numerous  germs. 
Dust  "Gardens" — 

For  experimenting  with  dust. 
Moist  bread  in  warm  place — Keep 

covered. 
Moist     meat    kept     warm — Cover 

with  glass — Watch. 
Keep  milk  in  warm  place — Watch 
changes. 


Place  piece  of  meat  in  covered  dish 
— Boil  half  hour,   keep  out  air, 
no  change.     Why? 
Canned  goods  do  not  spoil — Why? 
Bacteria  Dust  Plants— 
Where  Found- 
Kinds — 

Rod  shaped — Bacilli. 
Ball  shaped — Cocci. 
Spiral  shaped — Spirilla. 
Classification  as  plants — 

Because  they  can  live  on  mineral 

matter. 

Animals  cannot  do  this. 
Life  history — 

Multiply  very  rapidly — Millions  in 

twenty-four  hours. 
Reproduce  by  simple  division. 
Food — Milk,     meat    juices,     fruit, 

sweets,  animals,  man. 
Mostly  parasites — Live  on  prepared 

food. 
Digest    their    food    and    throw    off 

waste  products. 

Cause  changes  in  food  products. 
Cause     diseases — Waste     products 

are  poisonous. 
Size  of  bacteria — 

Never  seen  with  naked  eye. 


HOME  ECONOMICS  BOOKLETS 


357 


Some  require  very  powerful  micro- 
scopes. 

Great  number  make  up  for  small 

size. 
Power  of  movement — 

Some  are  stationary. 

Jerky  movements — Slow  motion. 

Whip-like  projections — Cilia. 
Spore  state — 

Some  bacteria  can  remain  dormant 
for  years. 

This  is  called  the  "spore  stage." 

Difficult  to  kill  such  species. 

Others  cannot  do  this. 

These  are  easily  destroyed. 
How  destroyed — 

Most  forms  by  boiling  or  baking. 

By  direct  sunlight  and  fresh  air. 

By  medical  treatment. 
Economy  in  nature — 

Some  are  very  useful. 

Some  are  very  harmful. 
Yeast  Dust  Plants- 
Size  and  structure — 

Much  larger  than  bacteria. 

Single     cell — Living  plant — B  u  d  - 

ding. 
Requirements  for  growth — 

Moist  warm  place. 

Temperature  from  70°  to  90°  F. 

Killed  with  heat  at  about  130°  F. 

Can  stand  more  cold  than  heat. 
Economy  in  nature — 

Used  in  bread  making. 

The  CO  2  given  off  raises  the  bread. 


Used  in  breweries. 
Mold  Dust  Plants- 
Life  history — 

Spores — Correspond     to     seeds    of 
higher  plants. 

Present  in  dust  at  all  timer 
Requirements  for  growth. 
Economy  in  nature — 

Useful  in  making  Limburger  cheese, 
etc. 

Harmful — Cause  ringworm,  thrush, 

liver  spots. 

How  Dust  Plants  Are  Useful— 
Bacteria  as  scavengers. 
Bacteria  in  the  soil — Nitrogen.  v 

In  commercial  world — 

Dyeing  industries. 

Flax  manufactures. 

Curing  and  tanning. 
In  producing  flavors. 
Butter  making. 
Cheese  making. 
Vinegar  production. 
Injurious  Dust  Plants- 
Bacteria  cause  diseases — 

Typhoid  fever. 

Tuberculosis. 

Diphtheria. 

Other  diseases. 
Infections  or  contagious  diaeaaes — 

Explain  how  caused. 
The  "spoiling"  of  food  stuffs. 
Preventives — 

Preserving  foods. 

Pasteurization. 


REFERENCES 

Bacteria,  Yeasts  and  Molds  by  Conn,  Household  Bacteriology  by  Buchanan, 
Bacteria  in  relation  to  Country  Life  by  Lipman,  and  Dust  and  Its  Dangers  by 
Pruden. 


BREAD  BAKING 

This  is  one  of  the  things  every  girl  should  learn  to  do 
welK  Experience  alone  will  not  produce  good  bread  bakers. 
The  scientific  principles  must  be  understood.  No  experi- 
ment should  be  more  interesting  than  that  of  learning  to 
bake  bread.  If  there  are  no  facilities  at  school,  do  the  work 
at  home  and  tell  how  you  did  it  in  the  booklet  on  "Bread 
Baking."  Local  and  state  contests  should  be  encouraged. 


358 


RURAL  EDUCATION 


Minnesota  has  just  completed  a  bread  baking  contest  with 
over  eighty  counties  represented  and  more  than  sixteen 
hundred  contestants.  Complete  directions  are  given  in 
Volume  III,  Number  7,  Rural  School  Agriculture,  published 
by  the  Minnesota  Extension  Division.  The  outline  here 
given  is  based  upon  the  suggestions  given  in  that  publication. 


Figure  134. 


Ready  for  state   contest.     These  were  all  prize  winners  in  com- 
petition with  over  sixteen  hundred  entries. 


Origin  and  History  of  Bread  Mak- 
ing- 
Early  unleavened  bread. 
Leavened  bread  known  by  ancients. 
Kinds  of  Bread- 
Made  from  what  sources. 
Methods  of  making. 
In  different  countries. 
Baker's  bread — 

Sometimes  cheap  flour,  alum,  etc. 
Homemade  bread — 

Pure  and  wholesome. 
Essential    Factors    in    Bread    Mak- 
ing- 
Flour — 

Bread  is  light  because  wheat  con- 
tains gluten. 


No  other  grain  contains  gluten  of 
desirable  quality. 

White    flour    mixed    with    rye    to 

make  it  light. 
Yeast — 

Dust  plant  found  in  the  air. 

Used  commercially. 

Gives   off   COa     (carbon   dioxide) 
which  raises  the  bread. 

Compressed     yeast — Very     active, 
will  not  keep. 

Dry    yeast — Cakes    soaked,    bread 
sponge. 

Liquid   yeast — Homemade,   "start- 
er," potatoes. 
Liquids — 

Milk — Better  crust  usually. 


HOME  ECONOMICS  BOOKLETS 


359 


Water— Often  used. 
Potato    water — From    white    pota- 
toes. 

Buttermilk — Sometimes      an      un- 
pleasant flavor. 
Other  Ingredients- 
Sugar — 

Food     for     yeast     plant — Hastens 

rising. 
Two    teaspoonfuls    to     a    loaf    of 

bread. 
Salt- 
Used  for  flavor. 
One  teaspoonful  to  a  loaf. 
Shortening,  or  fat — 

Makes  bread  more  tender. 
One  or  two  teaspoonfuls  to  a  loaf. 
Best  Results  Obtained— 
By  having  good  materials. 
Constant  care. 
Correct  temperature — 
75°  F.  to  95°  F. 
Easily  killed  if  above  95°  F. 
Rises  too  slowly  if  below  75°  F. 
Need  of  thermometer. 
The  Short  Process — 
Time:  four  to  six  hours. 
Compressed  yeast  used. 
Proportions  for  one  loaf — 

Milk  or  water,  one  cupful.  Flour. 
3^2  cupfuls.  Compressed  yeast 
%  cake.  Salt,  1  teaspoonful. 
Sugar,  2  teaspoonfuls.  Fat,  1 
teaspoonful. 

Milk  or  water  heated  to  95°  F. 
Put  warm  liquid  over  yeast  cake  to 

soften. 

Balance   of   liquid   over   other  ingre- 
dients. 


Add  yeast  and  flour — Mix  on  board. 
Place  in  well  oiled  pan  in  water  100° 

F. 
Bread    should    rise    until    double    its 

bulk. 
Knead  from  three  to  five  minutes — 

Distribute  gas. 

Shape  loaf  and  put  in  oiled  pan. 
Bake  from  forty-five  minutes  to  one 

hour. 

The  Long  Process- 
Set  sponge  at  night — Keep  warm. 
Proportions  for  one  loaf — 

Milk  or  water,  1  cupful.  Flour, 
3^  cupfuls.  Dry  yeast,  % 
cake.  Salt,  1  teaspoonful.  Su- 
gar, 2  teaspoonfuls.  Fat,  1  tea- 
spoonful. 

Proceed  as  in  short  method. 
Homemade  Yeast — 

Boiling    potato    water,    one    cupful. 

Flour,    4    teaspoonfuls.     Sugar,     1 

teaspoonful.     Yeast,  1  cake. 

Mix  flour  with  boiling  potato  water. 

Add  one  fourth  of  a  cup  of  mashed 

potato,  and  sugar. 
Add  yeast  cake  and  one  half  of  a  cup 

of  water  at  75°  F. 
Let  stand  twenty-four  hours — Stir. 
Score  Card  for  Judging — 
Total  hundred  points — 

General  appearance — Twenty 

points. 

Flavor— Odor    and    taste,     thirty- 
five  points. 
Lightness — Yeast      killed,      fifteen 

points. 

Crumb — Texture,  color,  grain, 
thirty  points. 


REFERENCES 

Domestic  Science:  Principles  and  Application  by  Bailey,  Chemistry  of  Bread 
Making  by  Grant,  and  all  standard  works  on  this  subject. 


CHAPTER  XXV 
OTHER  BOOKLETS  FOR  RURAL  SCHOOLS 

There  are  other  topics  of  sufficient  interest  for  booklet 
work  that  do  not  come  under  any  of  the  preceding  chapters. 
A  few  are  suggested: 

Good  Roads,  Cement  and  Its  Uses  on  the  Farm,  Pre- 
servatives for  Wood,  Tools  and  Their  Uses,  Drainage, 
Taxes,  The  Resources  of  Our  State,  Imports  and  Exports 
of  the  United  States,  The  American  School  System,  The 
Modern  Home,  Farming  as  a  Business,  Patent  Medicines, 
The  Value  of  Farmers'  Clubs,  Consolidation  of  Rural 
Schools,  Industrial  Contests,  -Our  Trees  and  Woods,  Birds 
That  I  Know. 


WOOD  PRESERVATIVES  AND  SUBSTITUTES 


Causes  of  Decay  of  Wood — 

Weathering — Water,  wind,  etc. 
Fungi — Small  plant  organisms. 
Increase  in  Cost  of  Wood — 
Lumber — 

Scarcity  in  many  parts  of  country. 
Some  kinds  can  no  longer  be  ob- 
tained. 
Posts — 

Scarcity  of  timber. 

Great  demand — Fencing,  railroads, 

telephone. 

More  Profitable  to  Preserve  Wood— 
Than  to  buy  new  material. 
Than    to    use    other    materials    than 

wood. 
Paints- 
How  made — White  lead,  oil,  coloring. 
For  houses — Outside. 
For  other  buildings — Cheaper  grade. 
Inside  paints — How  different. 
Cost — Always  cheaper  to  paint  than 

not  to. 
Varnishes- 
How  made — Shellac,  wood  filler,  etc. 
For  carriages,  automobiles,  etc. 
Indoor  varnishes. 


For  furniture. 
For  floors. 
Oil  and  Wax— 

For  floors. 
For  furniture. 
Other  uses. 
Preservatives  for  Posts— 

Cause  of  rot  at  base — 

Dampness. 

Soil  bacteria. 
Substitutes  for  wooden  posts — 

Iron — Too  expensive. 

Cement — Limited    to    soil    without 

alkali. 
Durability  of  posts  depends  upon — 

Kind  of  wood. 

Rate  of  growth. 

Age  of  tree. 

How  seasoned. 
Prevention  of  rot — 

Exclude  air  and  moisture. 

Poison  wood  and  kill  fungi. 
Old  methods — 

Charring — Good,    but    takes    time. 

Whitewash — Not  durable. 

Paint — Ground  moisture  softens  it. 

Coal  tar — Applied  with  brush. 


360 


OTHER  BOOKLETS 


361 


Poisoning  post  at  ground — Danger- 
ous. 
Other  methods — 

Mineral  salts — Zinc  chloride,  cop- 
per sulphate,  bichloride  of  mer- 
cury. Objections  to  these  are 
that  they  are  washed  out  by 
rains. 

Heavy   oils — Coal    tar    and    petro- 
leum.    These  are  best. 
The  Creosote  Preservative — 
The  pressure  process — 


Used  in  railroad  ties,  timbers,  etc. 
Requires  expensive  apparatus. 
The  non-pressure — Open  tank — 
Small  portable  tank. 
Plant  not  very  expensive. 
Dry,  soft  wood  posts  used. 
Cost  of   treatment — Seven   to   ten 

cents. 

Posts  last  twenty  to  thirty  years. 
Cheapest  kind  of  post  in  long  run. 
Makes  cottonwood  as  effective  as 

red  cedar. 


GOOD  ROADS 


History  of  Good  Road  Movement— 

In  Europe — 

Famous  roads  in  history. 
In    the    United    States. 

Bicycles    and    automobiles — In- 
fluences. 

Good   Roads   Cheaper   than   Poor- 
Poor  roads  always  need  repairs. 
Comparison  of  loads  hauled  over  each. 
Road  Construction— 

Under   direction   of   competent   engi- 
neer— 
The    "pathmaster"    not   ordinarily 

qualified. 
Has    made    special    study    of    this 

work . 

Laid  out  as  straight  as  possible — 
In    the    middle    West    usually    one 

mile  apart. 
The  road  bed — 

Well    graded    and    rounded. 
No  sods  left  in  road  bed. 
Ditches  at  sides  for  drainage. 
Proper  grade  established. 
Surfacing — 

With  top  soil  in  sandy  regions. 
With  sand  or  gravel  in  clay  soils. 
Gravel  or  crushed  rock — Best. 


Care  of  Roads- 
Road  overseers. 
Use  of  split  log  drag. 
Ordinary  "road  work"  not  well  done. 
Contracting  for  up-keep  a  better  plan. 
Classes  of  Roads- 
National  highways — 

The  Cumberland  road. 

In  national  parks. 
State  roads — 

State    Highway   Commission. 

Jurisdiction  and  duties. 
County  roads — 

County  commissioners. 

Jurisdiction  and  duties. 
Township  roads — 

Supervisors. 

Jurisdiction  and  duties. 
Road  Maintenance- 
State  aid  for  state  roads — 

How  is  work  done? 

What  constitutes  a  state  road? 
County  road  and  bridge  fund — 

Direct  tax  in  each  county. 

Levied   by   commissioners   usually. 

Where   and   how   spent. 
Town  road  and  bridge  fund — 

Direct  tax  in   each  township. 

How  administered. 


REFERENCES 

Get  pamphlets  on  data  from  State  Highway  Commission 


DRAINAGE 


Improvements- 
Temporary — 

Fencing. 

Buildings. 
More  permanent — 

Drainage. 


Irrigation. 

Drainage  Cheaper  than  More  Land- 
Drained  land  is  the  richest  land. 
Drained  for  twenty  to  thirty  dollars 

an  acre. 


362 


RURAL  EDUCATION 


Intensive,      not    extensive,    farming 

pays. 

Open  Ditches- 
Necessary  where  large  areas  are  low. 
Land    not    wasted    when     used    for 
these — 

Adjoining    land    more    productive. 
All  can  be  cultivated. 
Planning  Drainage  System- 
Land  surveyed. 
Maps  platted.    ~~ 
The  lay  of  the  land. 
Construction— 
The  "fall"— 

The  water  runs  by  gravity. 
Proper  depth  and  width. 
Competent  drainage  engineer — 
It   doesn't   pay   to    "guess"    about 

tile. 

Kinds  of  Drainage- 
Open  ditches — 

Remove  surface  water. 
Cheaply  constructed. 
Use  plow   and   scraper. 


Rains   wih   show   where   needed. 
Underdrainage — 

Permanent,  and  gives  best  results. 

More  expensive — Cost  of  tile. 

Stones  sometimes  used. 

Tiling  best. 

How  the  tile  works. 

Size  of  tile — Depends  upon  surface 

conditions,  grade,  and  depth. 
Tools  Used— 

The  level  and  stakes — 

Running  lines  and  fixing  grades. 
Skeleton  spade,  long  handled  shov- 
el,   solid    spade,    tile    scoop,    tile 
hook. 

Laying  the  Tile- 
Begin  at  outlet  and  lay  up  stream.  • 
Care  of  laterals — Connections. 
Blinding — Covering,  to  hold  in  place. 
Protection    for    outlet — Screen,    box. 
Filling    the    trenches. 
Conclusion. — 

Examples  of  profitable  drainage. 


REFERENCES 

Agricultural  Engineering  by  Davidson,  Farm  Drainage  by  French,  Engineer- 
ing for  Land  Drainage  by  Elliott,  and  Practical  Farm  Drainage  by  Elliott. 


CHAPTER  XXVI 
OUTSIDE  ACTIVITIES 

There  is  a  feeling  that  the  school  should  become  more 
and  more  a  real  community  institution.  It  is  no  longer  a 
question  of  what  the  school  can  do  for  the  farmers'  boys 
and  girls  only,  but  what  it  can  do  for  the  farmers  and  the 
farmers'  wives  themselves.  Already  the  state  university, 
through  its  great  and  efficient  extension  division,  is  making 
the  entire  state  its  campus,  and  the  industrial  high  schools  are 
making  their  influence  felt  in  their  communities.  The 
inevitable  step  remains — the  reorganization  of  the  rural 
school  with  the  same  end  in  view.  Pessimists  will  remon- 
strate and  loudly  proclaim  that  the  day  of  fads  has  not 
yet  passed,  as  they  have  always  done ;  progress  will  be  blocked 
here  as  it  has  been  with  the  university  and  high  schools 
referred  to;  but,  nevertheless,  the  day  is  near  at  hand  when 
the  American  Rural  School  will  come  into  its  own.  Already 
many  such  schools  are  the  life  and  inspiration  of  their 
environments. 

Closer  union  of  school,  home  and  farm,  is  the  slogan 


Figure   135.     Studying  pure  bred  swine  on  a  nearby  farm. 
363 


364  RURAL  EDUCATION 

of  the  progressive  school  to-day.  This  idea  is  being  succes- 
fully  carried  out  in  many  places.  Superintendent  Barnes 
of  the  St.  Cloud,  Minnesota,  schools,  in  a  prelude  to  a  plan 
for  giving  credit  for  work  done  outside  of  school,  says :  "The 
purpose  is  to  unite  the  home  and  the  school,  to  .connect 
the  work  of  the  school  with  things  going  forward  outside, 
and  to  encourage  the  children  to  spend  part  of  their  spare 
time  at  some  useful  occupation — in  a  measure  to  direct 
their  work  along  the  line  of  practical,  every-day,  homely 
tasks — to  give  all  a  chance  and  to  train  them  for  work  and 
service,  not  merely  the  acquisition  of  knowledge,  that  they 
may  the  better  fit  into  actual  conditions  about  them — to 
prepare  for  complete  living — to  make  the  watchword  in- 
dustrial, social  and  home  efficiency." 

Activities  outside  the  schoolroom,  but  under  the  lead- 
ership and  general  direction  of  the  school,  may  be  divided 
into  two  classes — those  for  the  children,  and  those  for  their 
parents.  Of  those  suitable  for  the  former  may  be  men- 
tioned the  home  credit  plan,  home  gardens,  corn  contests, 
tomato  contests.  It  is  important  that  the  the  prize  element 
of  the  contest  work  be  made  secondary,  and  the  enjoyment 
of  learning  to  improve  what  has  been  done  the  real  object. 
School  activities  carried  to  the  parents  may  include  the 
organization  of  farmers'  clubs,  women's  clubs,  institutes 
held  at  the  rural  schools,  cow  testing  associations,  the  tu- 
berculin test  for  cattle,  hog  vaccination,  demonstration 
work  on  farms,  teaching  use  of  records  and  accounts  in  the 
home  and  on  the  farm,  pure  seed  campaigns,  drainage 
planned  and  supervised,  etc.  The  question  probably  arises, 
"How  can  the  rural  school  with,  perhaps,  a  woman  teacher 
do  these  things?"  She  cannot  do  them  all,  although  the 
one-room  school  can  do  much  more  than  it  has  been  doing; 
but  the  rural  school  of  the  immediate  future  is  the  associated 


OUTSIDE  ACTIVITES  365 

and  consolidated  school.  Such  schools,  with  their  special 
teachers,  can  do  all  this  work  and  more,  as  the  opportunity 
presents  itself. 

The  home  credit  plan  is  popular  in  many  places.  In 
addition  to  the  regular  studies  which  are  required  for  pro- 
motion, the  school  gives  credit  for  certain  work  at  home. 
Sometimes  three  hundred  points  are  required  for  promotion 
with  credit  and  five  hundred  for  promotion  with  honor. 
The  home  work  is  elective  on  the  part  of  the  student,  but 
mere  "book  students"  are  not  passed  with  "credit"  and 
"honor,"  unless  their  physical  conditions  incapacitate 
them  for  any  of  the  outside  work.  A  great  variety  of  tasks 
and  duties  are  given  credit  in  different  schools,  each  count- 
ing a  definite  number  of  points.  A  few  are  taken  at  random 
from  one  school,  showing  the  number  of  points  for  each. 
Most  of  the  tasks  can  be  done  by  both  boys  and  girls.  The 
time  of  service  for  each  is  six  weeks. 

Points  Tasks  and  Duties 

1.  10.     Sawing,  splitting  and  carrying  in  wood. 

2.  10.     Building  the  fires  or  tending  the  furnace. 

3.  10.     Tending  horse  or  cow  and  other  barn  chores. 

4.  5.     Caring  for  poultry  and  gathering  eggs. 

5.  5.     Delivering  milk  or  carrying  water. 

6.  10.     Mowing  the  lawn. 

7.  10.     Making  a  bird  house  and  feeding  the  birds. 

8.  10.     Learning  to  swim. 

9.  5.     Bathing  at  least  twice  a  week. 

10.  5.     Retiring  before  nine  o'clock. 

11.  5.     Getting  up  without  being  called. 

12.  15.     Preparing  one  meal  daily  for  the  family. 

13.  5.     Getting  smaller  children  ready  for  school. 

14.  10.     On  time  at  school.     Clean,  hair  brushed,  teeth  brushed. 

15.  10.     Practicing  music  lesson  thirty  minutes  daily. 

16.  10.     Keeping  savings  account  with  growing  deposit. 

17.  5.     Making  beds. 

18.  10.     Making  and  baking  bread,  biscuits,  or  cake,  exhibits. 

19.  5.     Setting  table  and  serving. 

20.  5.     Doing  mending. 


RURAL  EDUCATION 


School  gardens  have  been  referred  to  elsewhere.  Plans 
for  the  gardens  should  be  discussed  in  school  and  at  home 
and  definite  space  and  vegetables  to  be  grown  determined. 
Directions  for  preparing  the  soil,  fertilizing,  planting,  and 
caring  for  the  garden  during  the  summer  can  be  given. 
The  students  should  be  encouraged  to  keep  records  of  the 
work  spent  on  the  gardens  and  of  the  value  of  the  products. 
Seeds  may  be  furnished  by  the  school  or  at  home,  as  de- 


Figure  136.     School  garden  products  exhibited  at  the  fall  contest. 

sired.  A  "harvest  festival"  held  at  the  school  during  the 
early  fall  will  be  the  crowning  event  of  the  garden  work. 
Judges  from  the  special  departments  of  the  high  schools 
can  be  secured.  Prizes  should  be  provided  for  the  dif- 
ferent entries.  Flowers  should  not  be  overlooked  in  the 
garden  work,  nor  in  the  exhibit.  A  local  program  and 
refreshments  served  by  the  girls  of  the  school  will  increase 
the  interest. 


OUTSIDE  ACTIVITES 


367 


Corn  contests  are  not  difficult  to  manage  in  states  where 
the  extension  division  of  the  university  conducts  a  state 
contest  in  corn  growing.  This  has  been  one  of  the  most 
popular  contests  in  Minnesota.  The  local  school  should 
get  the  bulletins  available  and  work  up  the  interest.  There 
are  always  boys  in  the  district  who  can  be  interested. 
Farmers  themselves  should  be  glad  to  co-operate  in  this 


Figure  137.     Checking  up  the  boy's  corn  yield 


work  and  to  contribute  liberally  toward  the  prizes,  as  corn 
contests  have  greatly  increased  the  corn  yields  the  last 
few  years.  The  winners  in  this  year's  Minnesota  state 
contest  were  all  over  the  hundred  bushels  of  dry  corn  mark, 
with  the  common  run  above  seventy-five  bushels.  When 
we  remember  that  the  average  yield  for  the  United  States 
is  under  thirty  bushels,  it  shows  the  possibilities  of  this 
work.  Land  that  will  produce  a  hundred  bushels  of  dry 
corn  to  the  acre  annually  in  rotation  is  worth  five  hundred 
dollars  an  acre.  Do  our  farmer  friends  realize  that  their 


368  RURAL  EDUCATION 

boys  and  girls  through  these  contests  directed  by  the 
schools  are  doubling  their  land  values  in  many  commun- 
ities? 

Tomato  contests  for  the  girls  can  be  conducted  in  a  sim- 
ilar manner  to  the  corn  contests.  There  is  not  always  the 
market  for  tomatoes  that  there  is  for  the  more-  staple 
products;  hence  the  financial  end  is  not  so  attractive.  A 
state-wide  canning  contest  is  now  being  planned  in  several 
states,  under  the  joint  direction  of  the  state  and  federal  ex- 
tension divisions.  This  is  an  excellent  project  for  the  furture 
home-makers,  as  modern  scientific  methods  of  preserving 
vegetables  and  fruits  will  be  learned.  The  use  of  harmful 
canning  powders,  and  other  unsanitary  methods  will  be 
discontinued  when  girls  learn  the  modern  processes. 

The  bread  baking  contests  referred  to  in  Chapter  XXIV 
can  be  conducted  as  well  in  a  rural  school  as  anywhere 
else,  as  part  of  the  bread  at  least  is  to  be  baked  at  home. 
It  can  all  be  baked  there,  if  desired.  In  case  the  school  is 
equipped  with  a  hot  lunch  outfit,  including  a  kerosene 
stove  and  oven,  part  of  the  contest  work  can  be  done  in 
the  school  under  the  direct  supervision  of  the  teacher. 
Compressed  yeast  should  be  used  at  the  school,  however, 
as  it  would  be  difficult  to  keep  a  sponge  at  the  proper  tem- 
perature over  night.  One  difficulty  with  the  home  work  is 
that  an  over-anxious  mother  sometimes  gets  her  "finger  in 
the  dough"  when  it  should  be  purely  the  girl's  affair.  The 
local  flour  should  be  used,  if  possible.  A  country  mill 
usually  produces  good  flour.  It  is  true  to  some  extent 
that  one  must  be  used  to  the  flour  to  get  the  best  results, 
but  get  used  to  your  local  mill's  product,  and  usually  as 
good  results  can  be  obtained  as  from  any  other  source. 
The  author  acknowledges  that  he  has  had  to  convert  more 
than  one  home-maker  and  teacher  to  this  doctrine,  but 


OUTSIDE  ACTIVITES  369 

what  his  power  of  persuasion  failed  to  do,  the  local  flour  in 
a  sack  bearing  the  name  of  the  favorite  brand  accomplished. 

Of  the  school  activities  carried  to  the  community  the 
first  mentioned,  the  organization  of  farmers'  clubs,  will  be 
discussed  at  length  in  the  next  chapter. 

Institutes  held  at  the  school  may  be  participated  in  by 
the  leading  men  and  women  of  the  community,  as  well  as  a 
specialist  from  an  industrial  high  school  or  the  county 
agent  and  field  workers  from  the  state  extension  division. 
A  series  of  such  meetings,  planned  jointly  by  the  schooi 
and  committee  from  the  farmers'  clubs,  may  be  held  from 
time  to  time  during  the  year.  The  state  Farmers'  Insti- 
tutes' Corps  is  often  available  for  such  service,  as  that 
organization  believes  in  carrying  the  gospel  of  good  farming 
and  home  making  to  the  farmers  and  home  makers.  Where 
a  course  is  planned  ahead  for  the  year  a  well  balanced  list 
of  topics  can  be  discussed,  and  a  good  choice  of  speakers 
secured.  In  case  there  are  no  farmers'  clubs  there  is  all  the 
more  for  the  school  to  do.  The  institutes  are  often  the 
forerunners  of  the  club  organization. 

Cow  testing  associations  have  been  formed  in  several 
places  with  excellent  results.  The  local  creameries  are 
always  glad  to  co-operate  in  an  enterprise  of  this  kind.  If 
a  man  cannot  be  employed  to  make  the  rounds  and  super- 
intend the  testing,  arrangements  can  likely  be  made  to  have 
it  done  at  the  creamery.  In  associated  and  consolidated 
schools,  it  is  often  done  at  the  school  laboratory.  Many 
progressive  farmers  now  have  a  milk  scale,  record  sheets, 
and  even  a  Babcock  tester,  so  that  the  organization  of  an 
association  should  not  be  difficult.  The  advantages  of 
such  an  organization  are  evident.  It  is  hard  to  imagine 
anything  less  profitable  about  the  place  than  a  scrub  cow. 
Testing  and  records  will  soon  clear  a  farm  of  scrubs. 

24— 


370  RURAL  EDUCATION 

The  tuberculin  test  should  be  better  known.  Shortly 
after  one  of  our  classes  in  animal  husbandry  had  com- 
pleted their  demonstration  lesson  in  tuberculosis  and  the 
application  of  the  tuberculin  test,  a  farmer  requested  that 
his  entire  herd  be  tested.  Others  followed,  until  one  hun- 
dred and  ten  cattle  were  tested  during  one  school  year,  all 
free,  of  charge  to  the  farmer.  Some  of  those  tested  were 
condemned,  and  the  results  verified  by  the  state  authorities. 
It  is  now  generally  known  that  tuberculosis  is  very  com- 
monly transmitted  from  cows  to  children,  and  even  to 
adults,  through  milk.  In  associated  schools,  where  an 
agricultural  expert  is  available,  tests  can  be  made  and  the 
facts  determined.  Until  laws  compel  owners  to  have  all 
cows  tested  for  tuberculosis,  many  farmers  will  not  pay 
for  the  services  of  a  veterinary. 

Vaccination  of  hogs  for  cholera  is  another  important 
service  that  is  being  done  frequently  by  the  instructors  in 
agriculture  from  industrial  high  schools.  Occasionally  this 
disease  breaks  out  in  violent  form  and  causes  tremendous 
losses.  Again  the  schools  can  be  of  great  service  to  the 
farmers. 

Demonstration  work  in  fertilizers,  pure  seed,  alfalfa, 
etc.,  can  be  successfully  done  on  the  farms  near  the  school. 
Our  agricultural  department  organized  twelve  so-called 
demonstration  farms  for  keeping  records  and  conducting 
various  tests.  These  have  since  been  turned  over  to  the 
state  Extension  Division  as  a  new  "route"  for  their  work. 
The?  farmers  were  glad  of  the  opportunity  to  have  their 
farms  put  on  a  business  basis  and  have  records  kept.  After 
a  discussion  of  potato  raising  at  an  institute  one  progressive 
farmer  tried  out  what  he  had  learned  and  was  delighted  with 
the  returns.  His  statement  was  so  candid  and  unique 
it  is  worth  giving  here.  He  said:  "My  name  is  Yonson. 


OUTSIDE  ACTIVTIES 


371 


I  listen  to  your  potato  talk  las'  spring.  I  thought  you  toF 
one  great  big  lie.  I  plant  potatoes  my  way  and  get  one 
hundred  fifty  bushels.  I  plant  potatoes  your  way  and  I 
get  three  hundred  and  seventy  six  bushels  on  same  ground. 
Now  I  plant  your  way." 

The  necessity  for  pure  seed  corn  and  other  grains  is 
evident,  if  maximum  crops  are  to  be  realized.  Here  again 
the  school  can  act  as  leader  through  its  teacher  of  agri- 


*igure  138.      The  agriculturist  and  manual  training  teacher  starting  for  the 
associated  schools  and  demonstration  farms  in  the  school  rig. 

culture.  Farmers  are  naturally  skeptical  of  "book  meth- 
ods" as  they  sometimes  call  the  work  of  the  high  school 
agriculturist,  but,  when  they  once  realize  that  these  meth- 
ods will  "deliver  the  goods,"  they  are  glad  to  co-operate. 
Testing  for  purity  and  germination  may  be  done  at  the  school, 
or  by  farmers  themselves.  Taking  seed  corn  from  the  crib 
will  no  longer  do  on  an  up-to-date  farm.  Seed  corn  week 


372  RURAL  EDUCATION 

is  observed  and  the  seed  is  carefully  selected,  properly  stored, 
and  accurately  tested  before  planting.  Hundred  bushel 
yields  must  have  the  right  start,  and  that  is  the  seed.  Other 
seed  grain  is  beginning  to  receive  the  attention  it  should 
for  record  yields. 

Drainage  projects  have  been  successfully  carried  out 
by  some  schools.  The  lines  were  run,  the  "fall"  determined, 
and,  in  some  cases,  the  tile  laid  by  the  students  from  the 
school.  A  consolidated  school,  or  rural  schools  associated 
with  an  industrial  high  school,  can  do  this  to  good  advan- 
tage to  both  farmer  and  pupils.  Nearly  every  district  has 
its  drainage  problems.  The  school  can  help  to  solve  them. 

The  county  agent  is  an  agricultural  expert  engaged 
jointly  by  the  state  and  county  in  several  states  the  last  few 
years.  He  organizes  farmers'  clubs,  attends  institutes, 
gives  talks  and  demonstrations  at  the  schools,  consults  with 
farmers  regarding  crops  and  stock,  and,  in  brief,  is  the  county 
advisor  in  matters  pertaining  to  agriculture.  The  plan 
has  worked  out  well  in  most  counties.  An  energetic,  well 
qualified  person  can  be  of  great  service  to  the  schools  and 
the  community  in  general. 


Figure  139.     Class  doing  field  work  in  animal  husbandry. 


CHAPTER  XXVII 
THE  SCHOOL  AS  A  SOCIAL  CENTER 

One  of  the  reasons  almost  invariably  given  by  young 
persons  for  wishing  to  leave  the  farm  is  the  lack  of  social 
opportunities.  Unfortunately,  for  the  average  rural  com- 
munity this  statement  is  justifiable.  There  is  little  or  noth- 
ing to  attend  in  the  country,  so  the  young  men  and  women 
go  to  town  to  spend  their  evenings.  This  practice  may, 
or  may  not,  be  bad  in  itself,  depending  upon  the  circum- 
stances, but  it  certainly  is  not  conducive  to  a  wholesome 
respect  for  country  life.  It  would  seem  to  be  the  duty  of 
every  rural  community  to  provide  some  form  of  recre- 
ation and  social  intercourse,  and  the  school  ought  naturally 
to  be  the  neucleus  of  this  social  life.  Where  there  is  a 
rural  church,  that  organization  should  co-operate  with  the 
school  in  solving  this  serious  problem. 

The  country  often  lacks  efficient  leadership.  Here 
is  the  opportunity  for  the  teacher.  Some  one  must  take 
the  initiative,  if  anything  is  to  be  accomplished.  A  course 
in  rural  sociology  should  be  required  in  the  training  of  every 
teacher  for  the  country  schools. 

An  illustration  of  what  can  be  done  when  the  rural 
school  and  the  country  church  co-operate  for  the  social  wel- 
fare has  come  under  the  observation  of  the  author  during 
the  last  few  years.  In  this  case  probably  the  leading  spirit 
is  the  local  pastor,  although  there  are  so  many  capable 
young  men  and  women,  it  would  be  unfair  to  give  the  entire 
credit  to  any  one  individual.  The  former  principal  of  the 
little  semi-graded  school  and  her  assistant  took  great  inter- 
est in  industrial  contests,  and  the  school  has  successfully 
defended  two  silver  cups,  until  they  became  the  permanent 

373 


374 


RURAL  EDUCATION 


Figure  140.  A  rural  community  center.  The  large  modern  church  stands 
just  beyond  the  schoolhouse.  The  pastor's  residence  and  farm  are  at  the 
right  of  the  picture.  The  store  and  co-operative  creamery  complete  the 
cluster. 

property  of  the  school.  The  present  principal  is  a  young 
man  of  exceptional  musical  ability.  Cantatas  and  oper- 
attas  flourish.  Another  group  of  young  persons  became 
interested  in  music.  An  organization  has  developed  into 
a  seven  or  eight-piece  orchestra  seldom  equaled  in  any  small 
community,  and  their  services  are  in  demand  far  beyond  the 
little  home  district.  An  effective  debating  society  has  done 
good  work  for  years.  The  church  is  commodious,  seating 
some  five  or  six  hundred  persons.  A  spacious  basement 
amply  provides  for  the  culinary  entertainments.  This 
institution  alternates  with  the  school  as  a  meeting  place 
for  the  entertainments  which  seldom  are  more  than  two 
weeks  apart.  A  prosperous  farmers'  club  looks  after  the 
agricultural  interests  during  the  year,  and  the  directors 
of  the  co-operative  creamery  have  as  an  annual  summer 
event,  a  picnic,  that  attracts  hundreds  from  outside  the 
immediate  neighborhood.  All  these  and  other  activities 
occur  regularly  in  a  typical  little  rural  center  four  or  five 


SCHOOL  AS  A  SOCIAL  CENTER  375 

miles  from  the  nearest  village.  Its  score  or  more  of  young 
persons  attending  the  central  high  school  in  the  village  are 
anxious  to  get  home  at  night  or  for  the  week-end  events. 
These  young  folk  are  not  clamoring  for  city  life,  nor  will 
they  choose  it  when  they  consider  their  life  work.  Progres- 
sive contentment  is  a  great  virtue. 

Farmers'  clubs  have  been  organized  in  Minnesota  by 
the  hundreds  during  the  last  year  or  two,  the  ultimate  goal 
being  one  in  each  school  district.  Several  reasons  might 
be  given  for  having  a  live  organization  of  this  kind  in  each 
community,  among  them  being  the  educational,  social  and 
financial  benefits  derived. 

The  educational  value  of  farmers'  clubs  should  not  be 
underestimated.  Topics  of  importance  to  farmers  and  their 
wives  are  discussed,  debates  are  given,  and  musical  and 
rhetorical  programs  rendered.  The  question  box  is  an  inter- 
esting feature  of  many  clubs.  Another  plan  is  to  have  each 
farmer  who  is  a  leader  discuss  how  he  gets  results  in  his 
particular  line.  In  the  summer  when  they  meet  at  the  homes 
the  men  sometimes  study  a  growing  crop,  such  as  alfalfa, 
by  going  into  the  field  and  examining  the  plants  and  soil, 
while  the  women  discuss  household  affairs. 

The  social  side  of  the  club  is  often  regarded  as  the  most 
valuable.  Man  is  a  gregarious  animal  and  requires  a  certain 
amount  of  recreation  and  social  enjoyment.  The  country 
folk  are  as  much  entitled  to  these  pleasures  as  the  city. 
Lack  of  initiative  and  organization  have  usually  stood  in 
the  way.  The  farmer's  club  is  meeting  a 'long  felt  want 
in  this  respect. 

As  a  financial  enterprise  the  club  has  many  induce- 
ments. Pure  bred  cattle,  horses,  hogs,  and  other  animals 
are  brought  into  the  community  by  individuals  who  have 
agreed  upon  the  breeds  that  will  be  raised,  or  by  the  club 


376      .  RURAL  EDUCATION 

itself.  Farmers  have  learned  that  it  pays  to  co-operate  in 
these  matters,  and  they  apply  the  same  principles  to  farm 
crops.  If  a  buyer  wants  stock,  corn,  or  potatoes,  he  must 
be  able  to  get  the  same  breeds  and  varieties  in  carload  lots. 
The  individual  producer  seldom  has  such  quantities.  If 
his  neighbors  have  the  same  kinds,  a  better  market  is  open 
to  all. 

The  club  gives  parliamentary  practice  to  those  who 
otherwise  would  get  very  little  of  such  training.  The 
farmer's  club  for  the  country  should  correspond  to  the 
commercial  club  of  the  village,  and  it  should  produce  just 
as  efficient  leaders  and  business  men.  Some  communities 
already  regard  the  club  as  vital  to  their  welfare. 

Clubs  are  organized  by  electing  the  usual  officers — a 
president,  vice  president,  secretary  and  treasurer.  Several 
committees  are  desirable,  as  the  program  committee,  mem- 
bership, refreshment  committee,  etc.  By-laws  are  drawn 
up  and  adopted.  All  this  work  is  excellent  training  for  the 
young.  It  is  understood  that  farmers'  clubs  should  be 
family  affairs.  That  is,  the  entire  family  should  be  mem- 
bers, and  attend.  They  should  never  be  organized  for  the 
men  only.  Once  a  week  during  the  winter  and  once  in 
two  weeks  in  the  spring  and  fall  will  not  be  found  too  often 
for  a  live  club  to  meet.  A  program  of  some  kind  should 
always  be  part  of  the  meeting.  If  there  is  still  time,  games 
may  be  played  before  or  after  the  refreshments.  The 
lunches  ought  not  to  be  elaborate.  It  can  readily  be  seen 
that  there  is  hardly  any  limit  to  the  activities  of  such  an 
organization.  Speakers  can  be  obtained  from  the  nearest 
high  schools  and  from  the  general  state  extension  division. 

Lyceum  courses  are  not  uncommon  now  in  rural  com- 
munities. It  is  true,  it  would  be  difficult  to  maintain  such 
a  course  in  a  common  one-room  school,  but  the  modern 


SCHOOL  AS  A  SOCIAL  CENTER 


377 


Figure  1-41.     Making  the  school  a  social  center.     One  of  the  lyceum  numbers. 

consolidated  school  ought  to  have  a  lyceum  course.  One 
hundred  season  tickets  at  one  dollar  and  a  half,  besides 
what  would  be  taken  in  at  the  door  for  each  attraction, 
would  support  a  fairly  good  course  of  four  or  five  numbers. 
The  University  of  Minnesota,  through  its  general  exten- 
sion division,  has  entered  the  lyceum  field  to  furnish  courses 
at  cost  and  to  a  degree  has  revolutionized  both  the  cost 
and  the  quality  of  lyceum  attractions. 

A  circulating  library  can  easily  be  managed  either  by 
farmers'  clubs  or  the  schools.  Under  the  associated  school 
plan  the  books  from  the  general  library  of  the  central  high 
school  can  be  circulated  from  school  to  school  in  the  country 
and  finally  returned  to  the  central  library.  A  consolidated 
school  could  have  a  similar  plan,  or  -several  rural  schools 
might  form  a  circulating  library.  The  advantages  of  such 


378  RURAL  EDUCATION 

a  plan  are  obvious.  Each  school  gets  the  benefit  of  all  the 
books  and  magazines.  In  order  to  be  a  success,  the  teach- 
ers must  first  of  all  be  enthusiastic  over  the  plan.  The 
books  must  be  checked  up  carefully  and  circulated  promptly 
from  school  to  school.  The  advantage  of  a  local  circulating 
library  over  a  state  library  is  that  the  local  books  can  be 
had  free  of  charge,  each  district  in  the  circuit  purchasing  a 
number  of  new  books  each  year.  In  one  associated  dis- 
trict, the  manual  training  department  of  the  central  school 
made  neat  oak  cases  to  hold  about  thirty-five  or  forty 
books.  They  could  be  locked  up  and  transferred  with  the 
books  to  the  next  school. 

The  community  hall,  either  in  connection  with  the 
school  or  as  a  separate  building,  is  probably  the  next  step 
in  community  welfare.  This  may  be  in  a  small  village  or 
out  in  the  open  country,  depending  upon  local  conditions, 
A  reading  room  with  books  and  magazines,  a  rest  room, 
a  larger  room  with  games  such  as  checkers,  dominoes, 
chess,  and  others,  should  be  provided.  If  possible,  there 
ought  also  to  be  a  larger  room  for  athletics,  basketball, 
indoor  baseball,  etc.  The  same  building  would  serve  for 
the  lyceum  course  and  home  talent  plays.  Such  things  may 
have  been  visionary  in  the  past;  they  are  to  be  realities  in 
the  very  near  future. 

Mr.  E.  M.  Phillips  in  his  Manual  for  Consolidated 
Schools  in  Minnesota  emphasizes  the  necessity  of  making 
the  school  the  social  center  for  the  community.  He  says, 
"Rural  communities  are  in  need  everywhere  of  such  organi- 
zations as  will  give  expression  to  all  the  varied  human 
interests  which  they  hold  in  common — religious,  educational, 
aesthetic,  social,  economic. 

The  rural  school  holds  a  splendid  strategic  position  with 
reference  to  every  one  of  these  interests.  It  is  intrenched 


SCHOOL  AS  A  SOCIAL  CENTER  379 

in  the  heart  of  every  loyal  American  as  identified  with  our 
national  achievements.  It  assures  our  future  as  a  great 
people  consecrated  to  the  cause  of  freedom,  truth  and 
righteousness  among  men.  What  is  more  natural  than  to 
make  use  of  this  existing  institution  as  an  agency  to  en- 
courage those  organizations  which  may  embody  the  lofty 
ideals  to  be  found  in  some  degree  in  every  community? 

Bring  only  some  of  the  latent  organizing  possibilities 
of  the  country-side  into  dynamic  combinations  of  people 
bent  upon  realizing  themselves  through  frequent  meeting, 
exchange  of  experiences  and  agreement  of  purpose,  and 
the  desirability  of  country  life  would  gradually  and  surely 
assert  itself.  The  school  stands  ready-made  for  this  serv- 
ice. School  boards,  principals  and  teachers  may  well 
co-operate  in  their  efforts  to  accomplish  or  stimulate  such 
organization  of  all  rural  interests.  If  a  beginning  is  made, 
the  logical  sequence  will  reveal  itself. 

Contests,  debates,  musical  training  through  school 
orchestral  and  band  organizations,  literary  societies,  agri- 
cultural clubs,  sewing  and  cooking  clubs — all  these  and 
others  are  being  employed  in  the  different  schools  with  ex- 
cellent success  as  a  means  of  helping  children  to  realize 
their  aspirations. 

A  warning  will  not  be  out  of  place.  Use  any  or  all  of 
these  agencies  for  the  accomplishment  of  something  de- 
finite and  educative,  and  so  regulate  the  situation  that  a 
logical  balance  is  at  all  times  preserved  between  regular 
school  requirements  and  these  affiliated  activities." 


CHAPTER  XXVIII 
ASSOCIATION  OF  SCHOOLS 

The  ''Minnesota  Plan,"  as  the  Putnam  Act  of  1909  is 
sometimes  called,  provides  for  the  association  of  rural 
schools  with  a  central  school  for  the  purpose  of  extending 
the  influence  of  the  central  school  to  the  rural  schools,  and 
for  the  teaching  of  agriculture  and  other  industrial  sub- 
jects in  these  schools.  When  the  law  was  first  passed,  the 
state  High  School  Board  was  authorized  to  designate  ten 
schools  to  maintain  departments  of  agriculture,  manual 
training  and  home  economics.  This  plan  was  at  first  inde- 
pendent of  association  of  rural  schools,  but  the  law  has 
since  been  revised  so  that  any  high,  graded,  or  consoli- 
dated rural  school  that  measures  up  to  the  requirements 
laid  down  by  the  High  School  Board,  may  draw  state  aid 
under  the  Putnam  Act,  provided  two  or  more  rural  schools 
become  associated  with  such  Central  School. 

Special  teachers  are  required  by  law  in  the  departments 
of  agriculture,  manual  training,  and  home  economics,  of 
all  schools  under  the  Putnam  Act.  The  instructors  in 
agriculture  and  home  economics  must  be  college  graduates 
in  those  subjects  and  the  manual  training  instructors  must 
hold  a  special  certificate  from  the  State  Department  of 
Education.  The  demand  for  such  teachers  has  exceeded 
the  supply.  So  rapidly  have  industrial  subjects  been  intro- 
duced into  the  schools  of  many  states.  This  demand  has 
tended  to  increase  the  salaries  not  only  of  the  special 
teachers  but  also  those  of  other  teachers  in  the  high  school 
and  grades.  The  demand  for  trained  teachers  in  the 
associated  rural  schools  has  raised  salaries  in  those  districts, 

380 


ASSOCIATION  OF  SCHOOLS  381 

so  that  few  pay  less  than  fifty  dollars  a  month  and  sixty 
or  sixty-five  dollars  is  not  uncommon  wages. 

Instruction  in  the  industrial  subjects  is  free  to  all  resi- 
dents of  the  associated  territory.  There  is  nothing  in  the 
law  to  prevent  the  central  district  from  charging  for  regular 
academic  work  in  the  upper  grades  or  for  textbooks  in  any 
subject,  but  to  do  so  is  not  a  common  practice.  Tuition 
may  be  charged  for  all  students  outside  the  associated  dis- 
trict who  take  industrial  work  above  the  sixth  grade,  at 
the  rate  of  one  and  a  half  dollars  a  month  in  the  seventh 
and  eighth  grades,  and  not  to  exceed  two  and  one  half  dol- 
lars a  month  in  the  high  school  department.  If  only  one 
industrial  subject  is  taken  by  the  student,  a  charge  of  not 
more  than  two  dollars  can  be  made.  A  very  interesting 
feature  of  the  tuition  law  is  that  provision  is  made  for  the 
individual  to  attend  school  free  of  charge,  the  tuition  being 
paid  by  the  state.  This,  naturally,  is  an  advantage  to  the 
individual. 

Rural  schools  may  become  associated  with  a  Central 
School  by  petition  of  twenty-five  per  cent  of  its  freeholders. 
Ten  days  posted  notice  must  be  given  before  the  election. 
All  legal  school  voters,  both  men  and  women,  may  vote, 
and  a  majority  of  the  votes  cast  are  necessary  to  effect 
association.  Any  number  of  rural  schools  may  become  as- 
sociated with  the  Central  School.  The  board  of  education 
of  the  Central  School  and  the  State  Board  of  Education 
must  approve  the  action  of  the  rural  schools'  voting  to 
associate  before  they  are  legally  associated. 

The  associated  school  board  consists  of  the  three  mem- 
bers from  each  rural  school  associated  and  the  six  members 
of  the  central  district,  provided  this  is  an  independent 
district.  This  general  board  meets  annually  on  the  first 
Monday  in  August  to  audit  the  accounts  and  expenditures 


382  RURAL  EDUCATION 

for  the  past  year,  and  to  appoint  a  managing  board  for  the 
ensuing  year.  A  tax  may  be  voted  by  the  rural  associated 
district  for  building  purposes,  and  not  more  than  two  mills 
for  maintenance.  The  managing  board  is  composed  of  one 
member  from  each  associated  district  and  the  entire  board 
of  the  central  district.  This  board  holds  regular  meetings  from 
time  to  time  during  the  year  and  has  the  management  of 
the  associated  district.  The  officers  of  the  Central  School 
are  by  law  the  officers  of  the  associated  board. 

Relationship  and  obligations  between  the  associated 
and  central  districts  may  be  terminated  at  any  annual 
school  meeting  by  a  majority  vote  of  all  the  associated 
school  districts,  provided  at  least  one  year's  notice  of  the 
intention  to  vote  on  the  question  is  given  the  central  district. 
Such  an  arrangement  makes  it  possible  for  any  district 
that  is  not  satisfied  with  its  conditions  under  association  to 
withdraw  within  a  reasonable  length  of  time. 

State  aid  to  the  amount  of  $200  per  associated  district 
is  given  to  the  Central  School.  Each  rural  associated  dis- 
trict receives  $50  aid.  This  aid  is  given  only  on  the  rec- 
ommendation of  the  superintendent  of  the  Central  School 
as  well  as  that  of  the  county  superintendent. 

In  addition  the  central  school  receives  $1,000  for  agri- 
culture, $600  for  home  economics,  $600  for  manual  train- 
ing, and  $600  for  commercial  courses. 

The  authority  of  the  superintendent  of  the  Central 
School  is  the  same  for  the  associated  schools  as  he  exercises 
over  the  central  district.  By  law  "he  shall  prepare  for  the 
associated  rural  schools  a  suitable  course  of  study,  em- 
bodying training  and  instruction  in  agriculture  and  indus- 
trial training  and  such  subjects  as  are  related  to  farm  life 
and  can  be  successfully  taught  in  rural  schools."  This 
authority  and  supervision,  with  the  hearty  co-operation 


ASSOCIATION  OF  SCHOOLS  383 

of  the  county  superintendent,  can  be  made  of  permanent 
benefit  to  the  rural  schools. 

Land  to  the  extent  of  at  least  five  acres  for  demonstra- 
tion and  experimental  purposes  may  be  provided  within 
two  miles  of  the  Central  School.  The  associated  board 
may  at  its  discretion  provide  land  for  experimental  work  in 
each  of  the  associated  schools.  In  Minnesota  this  land 
was  used  largely  for  school  gardens  at  first,  but  it  was  soon 
found  to  be  better  policy  to  have  the  gardens  at  home  under 
supervision  of  the  agricultural  department,  where  the 
children  could  take  care  of  them  during  the  summer. 

The  Associated  Schools  at  Cokato,  Minnesota,  have 
become  quite  well  known  during  the  last  half  dozen  years. 
The  splendid  work  done  by  Superintendent  Hargrave  and 
his  corps  of  teachers  prepared  the  way,  but  to  the  inexhaust- 
ible energy  and  untiring  effort  of  Superintendent  John 
Munroe  is  due  the  credit  of  the  organization  of  the  large 
territory.  The  Cokato  Associated  District  is  about  six 
miles  wide  and  fifteen  miles  long  and  comprises  twelve 
rural  districts  besides  the  central  district  at  the  village  of 
Cokato.  Situated  in  about  the  middle  of  this  large  territory 
of  some  eighty  odd  square  miles  is  the  Central  High  School, 
while  at  intervals  of  from  two  to  three  miles  apart  are  the 
associated  rural  schools.  This  district  has  a  valuation  .of 
over  one  million  dollars,  and  has  approximately  one  thou- 
sand students. 

The  associated  rural  school  is  to  be  distinguished  from 
the  consolidated  school  in  that  the  associated  district  does  not 
lose  its  identity,  but  merely  affiliates  itself  with  the  central 
school  for  the  purpose  of  getting  the  benefits  of  the  agricul- 
tural and  industrial  work  done  in  the  school,  as  well  as 
such  as  can  be  successfully  taught  in  the  rural  schools  under 
the  supervision  of  the  superintendent  and  special  instructors. 


384  RURAL  EDUCATION 

Each  rural  district  maintains  its  own  school,  but  votes 
a  tax  of  not  less  than  two  mills  toward  the  industrial  and 
extension  work  done  in  the  associated  districts,  and  can  send 
its  students  to  the  central  school  free  of  charge.  Since 
the  work  done  at  the  Cokato  School  is  typical  of  the  Minne- 
sota plan,  a  brief  discussion  of  some  of  the  school  activities 
is  given. 

The  Central  School  is  now  organized  on  the  six-three 
and  three  plan;  that  is,  six  grades,  a  junior  high  school  of 
three  years,  and  a  senior  high  school  of  three  years.  In 
addition  to  the  ordinary  academic  work  there  are  four 
special  departments — agriculture,  manual  training,  domes- 
tic economy,  and  a  normal  training  department  for  the 
training  of  rural  teachers.  A  "short  course"  is  also  offered 
during  the  winter  months  for  young  men  and  women  who 
have  not  had  the  advantages  of  high  school.  This  course 
has  been  popular  from  the  start  with  an  enrollment  of 
nearly  a  hundred  at  first  and  an  average  of  more  than  fifty 
for  the  six  years  of  its  existence.  There  was  such  a  demand 
for  the  work  of  this  course  that  a  four-year  short  course 
was  gradually  formed,  and  two  classes  have  now  been 
graduated  from  this  course.  These  graduates  have  averaged 
about  twenty-three  years  of  age,  and  have  practically  all 
gone  back  to  the  farms  for  their  life  work.  That  the  work 
of  the  departments  may  be  perfectly  clear,  a  paragraph 
is  given  to  each. 

The  agricultural  department  offers  a  brief  course  in- 
the  Junior  High  School.  This  course  is  required  of  all 
students,  and  offers  one  term  of  three  months  in  farm  crops 
in  the  eighth  year,  and  one  term  of  animal  husbandry  in 
the  ninth  year.  In  the  Senior  High  School  a  full  agricul- 
tural course  of  three  years  is  offered  for  those  who  desire 
to  elect  that  work.  A  perusal  of  the  course  will  show 


ASSOCIATION  OF  SCHOOLS  385 

agronomy,  or  farm  crops,  in  the  first  year,  or  tenth  grade. 
Animal  husbandry  is  offered  for  the  entire  year  of  the  elev- 
enth grade.  General  chemistry,  made  as  practical  as  pos- 
sible for  two  terms,  is  followed  by  a  term  of  study  on  soils. 
In  the  senior  year  the  student  gets  two  terms  of  agri- 
cultural engineering  and  one  of  farm  management,  in  addi- 
tion to  building  plans,  cement,  and  other  practical  work 


Figure  142.     An  exhibit  made  by  the   "short    course"    students    at    the  central 
school  of  an  associated  district.      These  boys  are  all  from  the  farms. 

for  the  farm.  The  department  has  a  large  room  especially 
fitted  up  for  laboratory  work  in  agriculture,  and  a  classroom. 
A  general  laboratory  supplies  the  needs  of  the  other  sciences. 
The  manual  training  department  comprises  two  rooms 
in  the  high  school  building  and  a  special  building  for  forg- 
ing, farm  mechanics,  and  cement.  The  large  shop  for  wood 
work  will  accommodate  thirty  to  forty  students  and  is  equip- 
ped with  full  men's  sized  benches  made  in  the  department. 
A  saw,  run  by  motor  power,  is  the  only  machinery,  as  the 
object  is  to  teach  work  as  it  is  done  on  the  farm  as  nearly 
as  possible.  Students  are  taught  to  take  care  of  the  tools 
and  to  keep  them  sharp.  The  mechanical  drawing  room 
joins  the  wood  working  shop  and  is  equipped  with  homemade 
drawing  tables.  The  forge  building  was  erected  by  the  asso- 
ciated board  at  the  expense  of  the  farming  community. 

25— 


386  RURAL  EDUCATION 

It  is  well  equipped  for  ordinary  work.  Students  are  encour- 
aged to  purchase  forges  for  the  farms  and  to  make  use  of 
them.  The  course  in  cement  teaches  the  proper  mixtures 
for  ordinary  use.  Building  blocks,  posts,  sidewalk  blocks, 


Figure  143.     Associated  school  blacksmith  shop. 

cement  floors,  troughs,  etc.  are  made  and  taught.  Work 
in  the  manual  training  department  is  required  in  the  grades 
and  Junior  High  School,  and  elective  in  the  Senior  High 
School.  The  fifth  and  sixth  grades  have  two  seventy-five 
minute  periods  a  week,  and  the  eighth  and  ninth  have  that 
number  of  minutes  daily.  The  seventh  grade  has  a  term 
of  general  industrial  work,  as  basketry,  clay  modeling, 
camp  cookery,  sewing  on  buttons,  mending,  etc.  This 
work  is  not  done  in  the  manual  training  department.  Only 
boys  take  the  regular  work  in  manual  training,  as  the  girls 
of  these  grades  have  work  in  home  economics. 

The  department  of  home  economics  is  well  equipped 
and  occupies  four  rooms — sewing,  domestic  science  labora- 
tory, dining  room,  and  pantry.  Over  one  hundred  and 


ASSOCIATION  OF  SCHOOLS 


387 


fifty  girls  take  work  in  this  department  annually,  beginning 
in  the  fifth  grade.  As  in  manual  training,  the  work  is  re- 
quired in  the  grades  and  Junior  High  School,  and  elective 
in  the  Senior  High  School.  The  girls  of  the  fifth  and  sixth 
grades  have  sewing  twice  a  week.  In  the  seventh  grade 
both  girls  and  boys  are  required  to  take  some  practical 
work  in  cooking  and  sewing.  Domestic  science  is  given 
daily  in  the  eighth,  with  three  double  periods  a  week  devoted 
to  laboratory  work.  A  course  in  canning  is  offered  in  the 


Figure  144.     The  sewing  room  at  the  central  school  of  an  associated  district 

fall,  and  supplies  for  the  use  of  the  department  are  put  up. 
Garment  making  is  done  in  the  last  year  of  the  Junior  High 
School,  or  ninth  grade.  The  sewing  room  is  large  and  equip- 
ped with  tables  for  drafting  and  cutting,  and  with  sewing 
machines.  The  cooking  laboratory  accommodates  twenty- 
eight  students  in  a  division,  and  is  well  provided  with 
unilateral  light.  The  pantry  has  been  built  especially  for 
the  department  and  contains  home  made  sanitary,  movable 
bins,  and  other  conveniences.  The  dining  room  is  well 


388  RURAL  EDUCATION 

arranged  and  contains  a  built-in  china  closet.  The  whole 
department  is  tinted  in  harmonious  colors  such  as  would  be 
suitable  for  the  home.  A  course  in  serving  is  given,  and 
during  the  winter  months  the  table  is  set  regularly  three 
times  a  week  and  half  a  dozen  persons  are  served  for  luncheon 
or  dinners.  Tickets  are  sold  for  ten  cents  each  for  the 
luncheons  and  fifteen  cents  for  the  dinners.  Each 
student  in  turn  must  plan  the  menu,  purchase  the  materials, 
cook  the  meal,  serve  and  act  as  hostess.  Hot  lunches  are 
served  daily  from  the  time  it  is  too  cold  to  enjoy  a  picnic 
lunch  on  the  lawn  in  the  fall  until  the  warm  weather  of 
spring  arrives.  From  seventy-five  to  one  hundred  are 
served  each  noon.  The  students  take  turns  in  bringing 
the  supplies  and  they  are  cooked  by  students  from  the  nor- 
mal training  department  who  take  turns  in  preparing  the 
warm  dishes  and  serving  them,  under  the  direction  of  the 
supervisor  of  the  home  economics  department.  The  recipes 
given  in  Chapter  XIX  have  all  been  prepared  and  served 
with  entire  success.  Occasionally  we  find  parents  who 
pretend  to  think  the  serving  of  something  warm  with  the 
cold  lunch  a  fad,  but  usually  such  do  not  care  to  send  the 
little  food  needed  to  carry  on  this  work.  On  the  whole 
the  students  think  very  highly  of  the  plan.  A  three-year 
course  in  home  economics  is  offered  in  the  Senior  High  School. 
The  subjects  given  may  be  seen  under  the  courses  of  study. 
The  teachers'  training  department  has  for  its  object 
the  preparation  of  teachers  for  the  rural  schools,  but  par- 
ticularly for  the  schools  of  the  associated  district.  A 
three-year  course  is  offered,  but  the  senior  year  only  is  given 
in  the  training  department.  No  students  are  allowed 
to  take  the  work  until  they  are  seniors  in  the  high  school, 
and  many  take  the  course  as  post-graduate  work,  that  is, 
the  last  year  of  the  course  as  offered  in  the  normal  depart- 


ASSOCIATION  OF  SCHOOLS  389 

ment.  State  aid  to  the  extent  of  twelve  hundred  dollars  is 
earned  by  all  training  departments  in  Minnesota.  This, 
together  with  special  inspection  for  this  department,  should 
insure  high  grade  work.  All  students  who  take  the  normal 
training  course  in  the  senior  year  of  high  school  or  as  post- 
graduate work,  receive  a  first  grade  state  certificate.  This 
is  good  only  in  rural  schools. 

An  ungraded  room,  or  rural  school,  has  been  operated 
in  connection  with  the  training  department.  Twenty-two 
students  were  admitted  the  first  year.  These  were  selected 
from  the  regular  grade  classes,  about  half  living  in  the 
country  and  half  in  town.  The  aim  is  to  get  an  average 
school — not  only  backward  students,  not  the  brightest 
students.  The  program  followed  is  the  one  suggested  for 
three  divisions  in  Chapter  VIII,  and  the  course  of  study 
is  that  given  in  this  book  under  academic  and  industrial 
work.  The  ungraded  room  was  a  great  success  from  the 
start,  due,  largely,  to  the  hearty  co-operation  given,  and  the 
splendid  results  obtained  by  the  supervisor  of  the  depart- 
ment, Miss  Mary  A.  Conant.  Not  once  did  we  have  a  com- 
plaint from  the  parents  that  the  children  were  not  doing  as 
well  as  in  the  grades.  On  the  other  hand,  several  requests 
that  children  might  be  allowed  "to  take  the  work  in  this 
room  were  received.  The  students  taking  the  training 
course  do  most  of  their  teaching  in  this  room  under  the 
direction  of  the  training  teacher.  Before  students  are 
graduated  and  recommended  for  certificates  they  must 
have  entire  charge  of  the  room  for  a  week  or  more  at  a  time. 

The  "short  course"  has  been  one  of  the  best  features  of 
association  at  Cokato.  These  winter  courses  have  been 
planned  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  young  men  and  women  on 
the  farms  or  in  town  who  cannot  avail  themselves  of  the 
full  high  school  course.  There  are  but  two  entrance  re- 


390  RURAL  EDUCATION 

quirements  for  this  course — maturity  and  perseverance. 
Some  students  have  been  enrolled  who  did  not  know  the 
language  when  they  began.  No  student  under  sixteen 
years  of  age  is  eligible  to  the  short  courses.  The  question 
is  sometimes  raised  whether  the  short  courses  do  not  draw 
students  from  the  regular  courses  and  thus  'encourage 
them  to  attend  school  only  three  months  instead  of  nine 
months.  Such  has  certainly  not  been  the  case  at  Cokato, 
as  most  of  the  students  are  those  who  have  left  the  country 
schools  years  before,  and  would  never  attend  the  regular 
high  school  if  it  were  not  for  the  special  courses.  Indeed 
several  persons  have  taken  the  short  course,  have  "found" 
themselves,  and  have  taken  the  regular  high  school  courses. 
The  four-year  course  of  study  for  the  "Short  Course" 

follows : 

COURSE  OF  STUDY 

FIRST  DIVISION  SECOND  DIVISION 

First  Year  Third  Year 

English,  5  English,  5 

Woodwork,  5  |™n  wor,k'  5  M. 

Farm  crops  5  Sous  anc*  fertilization,  5 

Practical  Arithmetic,  5  Farm  management,  5 

Plain  cooking,  10  Drainage  5 

Poultry,  5  l^!1}8'  1(?       e 

Writing  and  spelling,  5  Bookkeeping,  5 

Business  law,  5 

Second  Year  Fourth  Year 

English,  5  English,  5 

Woodwork,  5  Cement  and  building,  5 

Animal  husbandry,  5  Corn  culture,  5 

Farm  Accounts,  5  Farm  mechanics,  5 

Home  Accounts,  5  Domestic  art,  10 

Domestic  science,  10  Political  economy,  5 

Commercial  geography,  5  Civics,  5 

Business  writing,  spelling,  rhetoricals  and  debate  required  at  the 
general  period  throughout  the  course. 

Notes  on  the  Course 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  course  is  divided  into  two  divisions  for 
economy  in  handling  the  classes.     The  plan  is  to  alternate  the  work 


ASSOCIATION  OF  SCHOOLS  391 

of  the  first  and  second  years,  as  well  as  that  of  the  third  and  fourth 
years,  offering  half  of  the  subjects  of  a  division  one  year  and  the  other 
half  the  next.  That  is,  those  who  come  in  for  the  first  time  this  year 
will  take  their  work  with  the  second  year  students,  and  the  two  will 
constitute  the  first  division  classes.  In  the  same  way  the  two  classes 
of  the  second  division  will  be  combined.  This  combination  will  insure 
large  classes,  a  better  course  can  be  offered,  and  only  about  one  half 
the  teaching  force  is  required.  The  numerals  indicate  the  equivalent 
of  single  periods  per  week.  Each  student  working  for  credit  should 
elect  twenty  units  per  week,  as  this  is  the  basis  required  for  graduation. 
The  first  two  years  of  English  are  required  of  all  students.  The  rest 
of  the  work  is  elective  except  the  general  period. 

A  women's  class  has  been  organized  to  meet  once  or 
twice  a  week  for  about  two  hours  in  the  afternoon  during 
the  winter  months.  Drafting  of  patterns,  dressmaking, 
home  accounts,  food  study,  home  sanitation,  and  the  dem- 
onstration of  new  recipes  are  among  the  topics  studied. 
Most  of  the  work  has  been  done  by  actual  demonstration 
and  lectures  rather  than  by  textbooks.  The  women  were 
encouraged  to  draw  reference  books  from  the  library  and 
to  get  government  and  station  bulletins  on  the  topics  under 
consideration.  A  great  deal  of  interest  has  been  shown  in 
these  meetings.  Women  from  the  country  as  well  as 
from  town  have  participated.  The  great  majority  of  those 
attending  these  courses  are  actual  home  makers,  busy  but 
progressive,  who  think  it  worth  while  to  keep  abreast  of 
the  times  in  things  that  have  developed  since  they  were 
in  school.  There  is  no  reason  why  similar  work  should 
not  be  conducted  in  the  rural  schools,  especially  when 
these  schools  are  associated  with  some  central  high  school 
where  help  from  the  special  instructors  can  be  obtained  or 
where  there  is  a  rural  consolidated  school. 

The  reorganization  of  the  graded  system  has  undoubt- 
edly resulted  in  more  efficient  work,  although  it  is  still  too 
early  to  judge  permanent  results,  as  the  plan  has  been  in 
operation  but  two  years.  The  usual  twelve  years'  work 
are  maintained  in  the  Central  School,  but,  instead  of  the 


392  RURAL  EDUCATION 

traditional  plan  of  eight  and  four  years,  there  are  four  units 
equal  in  time.  The  central  idea  of  the  first  three  years,  or 
Primary  Division,  is  to  guide  the  pupil  in  such  a  manner 
that  he  may  become  an  independent  reader,  and  to  teach 
him  to  express  his  thoughts  clearly.  The  first  purpose 
can  be  accomplished  only  by  emphasis  of  the  mechanical 
side  of  reading,  or  phonics,  and  the  reading  of  twenty  or 
thirty  suitable  books  a  year,  and  the  second  is  taught  by 
oral  and  written  language,  dramatization,  and  industrial 
work.  In  the  Second  Division,  or  grades  four,  five  and  six, 
the  fundamentals  of  all  the  so-called  common  branches, 
including  industrial  work,  are  taught.  Every  teacher,  at 
least,  must  realize  that  it  is  possible  to  do  much  more  work 
than  is  usually  done  in  the  eight  years  of  the  grades. 
Everything  ordinarily  done  in  the  grade  school  can  be  done 
in  six  years,  and  done  more  effectively  and  with  fewer 
"home  tasks,"  under  an  environment  that  will  stimulate 
the  best  energy  of  both  teacher  and  pupil.  Like  the  steam 
engine,  only  a  small  per  cent  of  the  energy  of  the  average 
schoolroom  is  useful  work.  This  condition  of  our  public 
school  system  can  and  will  be  remedied.  As  this  phase  of 
school  work  has  been  discussed  more  in  detail  in  previous 
chapters,  a  passing  reference  will  suffice  here. 

The  Junior  High  School  is  the  third  division,  and  is 
conducted  on  a  plan  whereby  the  pupils  of  the  seventh, 
eighth  and  ninth  grades  form  one  unit  of  the  school  organi- 
zation. The  departmental  plan  is  followed.  That  is,  in- 
stead of  having  one  teacher  for  each  grade,  there  is  a  group 
of  teachers  for  the  entire  unit.  Each  teacher  is  especially 
well  qualified  to  teach  one  or  more  subjects,  as  history  and 
arithmetic,  English  and  penmanship,  etc.  The  students 
have  four  or  five  different  instructors  during  the  year,  at 
least  two  of  whom  are  men.  The  instructors  of  the  in- 


ASSOCIATION  OF  SCHOOLS  393 

dustrial  departments  have  classes  from  both  Junior  and 
Senior  High  Schools.  It  would  seem  that  the  strongest 
argument  in  favor  of  the  Junior  High  School  is  that  in  view 
of  the  fact  that  the  great  majority  of  students  never  go 
beyond  the  grades,  the  work  of  the  upper  grades  should  be 
made  more  practical  for  them.  In  other  words  the  course 
should  be  made,  as  far  as  possible,  a  preparation  for  life 
rather  than  for  high  school.  This  doctrine  seems  iconi- 
clastic  to  some,  probably  because  we  are  only  just  begin- 
ning to  get  away  from  the  idea  that  the  high  school  should 
be  primarily  a  preparation  for  college.  Experience  has 
shown  that  many  students  who  would  drop  out  of  school 
at  the  end  of  the  eighth  year  will  remain  for  the  ninth, 
when  the  work  of  that  year  is  part  of  a  definite  course. 
Students  who  do  not  expect  to  complete  the  regular  four 
year  high  school  course  are  reluctant  about  starting  with 
algebra  or  Latin.  The  experience  of  almost  every  high 
school  is  that  many  more  drop  out  during  the  freshman 
year  than  during  any  other  year.  Our  experience  since  the 
reorganization  has  been  that  the  enrollment  of  the  ninth 
grade  has  increased  about  fifty  per  cent.  Not  only  prac- 
tically all  the  eighth  grade  of  the  central  school  finish 
the  ninth,  but  many  pupils  from  the  associated  rural  schools 
come  in  to  finish  the  Junior  High  School.  The  results  so 
far  have  been  gratifying  indeed,  and  the  effect  upon  the 
student  seems  to  have  been  an  incentive  to  finish  the  Senior 
High  School  also,  rather  than  to  be  content  with  a  diploma 
from  the  Junior  High  School.  Those  who  do  quit  school 
have  a  much  more  practical  course  than  under  the  old 
arrangement. 

The  tabulation  shows  the  course  of  study  for  the  three 
years'  work.  A  general  assembly  period  of  forty  minutes 
daily  for  chorus,  rhetoricals,  and  other  exercises  is  re- 


394  RURAL  EDUCATION 

quired  of  all  students.  The  only  elective  subject  in  the 
Junior  High  School  is  Swedish.  This  language  is  offered 
because  a  very  large  percentage  of  the  pupils  are  of  that 
nationality.  It  is  taught  by  the  direct  method  and  no  English 
is  used  during  the  recitation.  The  usual  high  school  course  in 
Swedish  is  offered  in  the  seventh  and  eighth  years,  the 
grammar  being  given  the  last  semester  instead  of  the  first. 
Those  who  do  not  elect  Swedish  are  required  to  take  a 
course  in  English  classics  in  addition  to  the  regular  course 
in  English  which  all  take. 

JUNIOR  HIGH  SCHOOL  COURSE 

Note:     Where  no  figure  follows  the  study  one  term  of  three  months  is  given. 

First  year  or  seventh  grade:  English  3,  industrial  work,  elementary  science, 
Swedish  3  or  English  classics  3,  geography,  commercial  geography,  writing,  spelling, 
music,  arithmetic. 

Second  year  or  eighth  grade:  English  3,  cooking  3  or  manual  training  3, 
Swedish  3  or  English  classics  3,  accounts,  general  history,  general  agriculture, 
drawing. 

Third  year  or  ninth  grade:  English  2,  grammar,  arithmetic  2,  history  2, 
civics,  sewing  3  or  manual  training  3,  general  agriculture,  physiology. 

The  Senior  High  School  constitutes  the  last  unit  and 
consists  of  the  tenth,  eleventh  and  twelfth  grades.  In  this 
division  the  work  is  largely  elective.  Six  courses  are  of- 
fered, and  there  is  at  least  one  elective  each  year  in  each 
course.  The  work  of  the  Junior  High  School  is  not  elec- 
tive, because  it  consists  chiefly  of  subjects  that  are  funda- 
mental and  will  be  useful  whatever  the  vocation  of  the 
individual  may  be,  and  because  students  are  not  old  enough 
to  intelligently  elect  a  course  at  that  time.  As  the  tabu- 
lation gives  the  subjects  offered  in  each  year  of  the  six 
courses,  further  discussion  is  unnecessary. 

SENIOR  HIGH  SCHOOL  COURSES 

Note:     Where  no  figure  follows  the  study  one  term  of  three  months  is  given. 

College  Preparatory — Tenth  Grade:  English  3,  elementary  algebra  3,  zool- 
ogy 2,  botany,  elect  one  3.  Eleventh  grade:  English  3,  plane  geometry  3,  modern 
history  3,  elect  one  3.  Twelfth  grade:  English  3,  physics  or  chemistry  3,  elect  two  6. 

Normal — Tenth  grade:  English  3,  elementary  algebra  3  or  plane  geometry 
3,  domestic  science  3,  agriculture,  zoology  2,  botany.  Eleventh  grade:  English 
3,  modern  or  ancient  history  3,  chemistry  2,  analysis  of  foods  1  or  physics  3,  sew- 
ing 3,  agriculture.  Twelfth  grade:  English  (including  grammar)  3,  arithmetic, 


ASSOCIATION  OF  SCHOOLS  395 

geography,  music  6  weeks,  agriculture  6  weeks,  civics  6  weeks,  physiology  6 
weeks,  history,  industrial  work,  manual  training  6  weeks,  sewing-cooking  6  weeks, 
school  organization,  observation  and  practice  teaching  3. 

Agriculture — Tenth  grade:  English  3,  zoology  2,  botany,  agronomy  3,  prac- 
ticums,  manual  training  3.  Eleventh  grade:  English  3,  animal  husbandry  3, 
practicums,  chemistry  2,  soils,  elect  one  3.  Twelfth  grade:  English  3,  agricul- 
tural engineering  2,  farm  management,  practicums,  iron  work  2,  cement,  mechan- 
ical drawing,  elect  one  2. 

Manual  Training — Tenth  grade:  English  3,  woodwork  3,  mechanical  drawing 
3,  elect  one  3.  Eleventh  grade:  English  3,  woodwork  2,  shop  accounts,  mechan- 
ical drawing  3,  elect  one  3.  Twelfth  grade:  English  3,  iron  work  2,  cement,  mechan- 
ical drawing  3,  shop  practice  3. 

Home  Economics — Tenth  grade:  English  3,  home  accounts,  vegetable  gar- 
dening, poultry,  domestic  science  3,  elect  one  3.  Eleventh  grade:  English  3, 
elect  one  3,  dressmaking  2,  domestic  art,  chemistry  2,  analysis  of  foods.  Twelfth 
grade:  English  3,  house  plans,  sanitation,  home  decoration,  food  study  and  house- 
hold management,  physiology  and  home  nursing,  textiles  and  purchasing  supplies, 
elect  one  3. 

Commercial — Tenth  grade:  English  3,  accounts,  bookkeeping  2,  German  3, 
elect  one  3.  Eleventh  grade:  English  3.  German  3,  shorthand,  typewriting, 
commercial  writing,  elect  one  3.  Twelfth  grade:  English  3,  Swedish  3,  commer- 
cial spelling,  commercial  geography,  commercial  arithmetic,  political  economy, 
commercial  law,  office  practice,  shorthand  and  typewriting  3. 

The  advantages  of  association  to  the  rural  communities 
themselves  are  many.  Thus  far  we  have  considered  only 
the  work  at  the  Central  School,  all  of  which  is  free  to  the 
pupils  from  the  associated  districts.  That  a  large  number 
from  the  farms  take  advantage  of  these  opportunities  is 
shown  by  the  present  enrollment.  The  records  show  that 
64.3%  of  the  Junior  High  School  students,  and  71.4%  of 
the  Senior  High  School  students  live  on  farms.  The  latter 
figures  include  nearly  forty  "short  course"  students,  the 
majority  of  whom  are  from  the  rural  districts.  The  per- 
centages from  the  farm  of  each  grade  make  an  interesting 
study.  The  "Short  Course"  leads,  naturally,  with  88%. 
The  others  are  as  follows:  Twelfth  grade,  53%;  eleventh 
grade,  67%;  tenth  grade,  66%;  ninth  grade,  70%;  eighth 
grade,  59%;  seventh  grade,  30%.  In  actual  numbers 
there  are  nearly  three  times  as  many  students  in  the  high 
school  departments  as  there  were  before  association  was 
effected,  and  the  percentage  from  the  country  has  increased 
in  about  the  same  proportion.  The  large  percentage  from 
the  country  in  the  ninth  grade  justifies  the  contention  that 
the  Junior  High  School  plan  holds  students  in  school  longer 


396  RURAL  EDUCATION 

than  the  ordinary  organization  of  the  grades.  In  numbers 
also  the  ninth  grade  is  the  largest  in  the  history  of  the  school, 
having  at  present  exactly  the  same  number  as  in  the  eleventh 
and  twelfth  grades  combined. 

Land  values  in  the  associated  districts  have  greatly 
increased  and  no  one  will  deny  that  the  activities  of  the 
schools  and  allied  organizations  have  been  instrumental  in 
no  small  way  in  bringing  this  about.  How?  By  demon- 
stration that  three  or  four  times  the  state  average  yield 
of  corn  is  entirely  possible  on  every  farm  by  proper  selec- 
tion and  management;  by  teaching  better  methods  of 
farming;  by  encouraging  farmers  to  keep  records;  by  showing 
the  value  of  rotation  of  crops;  by  assisting  in  drainage;  and 
by  preaching  to  the  community  the  possibilities  of  the  farm 
and  the  advantages  of  country  life.  The  work  of  the  farmers' 
clubs  has  been  discussed  elsewhere.  These  were  organized 
by  the  school,  and,  although  entirely  capable  of  managing 
their  own  organizations,  they  still  look  to  and  receive  aid 
from  both  the  rural  and  central  schools. 

The  school  farm  has  probably  been  about  as  successful 
and  as  unsuccessful  as  many  other  school  farms.  In  many 
ways  it  has  been  beneficial.  For  example,  a  small  orchard 
of  about  two  acres  has  been  set  out  to  demonstrate  that 
many  varieties  of  orchard  fruits  are  adapted  to  the  com- 
munity. 

It  used  to  be  thought  that  Minnesota  could  not  grow 
apples,  and  yet  no  other  state  has  produced  a  variety  that 
can  equal  the  flavor  of  the  Wealthy.  Small  fruit  has  been 
given  attention  on  the  school  farm.  Corn  breeding,  demon- 
strations with  grains  and  grasses,  fertilizer  tests,  and  a  three- 
year  rotation  plan  are  among  the  worthy  projects  of  the 
ten  acres  used  for  that  purpose.  There  has  been  criticism 
of  the  farm — some  just  and  some  unjust,  as  is  usually  the 


ASSOCIATION  OF  SCHOOLS  397 

case.  The  most  serious  mistake  that  has  been  made  is  in 
the  operating  expenses.  A  tract  of  valuable  land  worth 
one  hundred  and  fifty  dollars  an  acre  should  be  made  to 
pay  at  least  all  expenses  when  the  supervision  is  by  the 
specialist  in  agriculture  and  whose  time  is  paid  for  by  the 
school.  The  farmers  have  objected  to  the  unprofitableness 
of  the  farm,  and,  I  think,  rightly.  On  the  other  hand,  it 
must  not  be  expected  that  the  demonstration  plot  of  land 
is  merely  to  show  a  profit.  That  side  of  the  question  is  the 
other  extreme.  Ten  acres  of  corn  could  be  made  to  pay 
a  fine  profit  each  year,  but  it  would  not  show  any  more 
than  the  boys'  corn  contests  are  already  showing.  In  my 
judgment  the  school  farm  should  do  two  things — act  as  the 
outdoor  laboratory  for  the  classes  in  agriculture,  and  dem- 
onstrate a  rotation  plan  managed  to  show  a  profit.  That  is, 
ten  acres  could  be  divided  about  equally  one  half  to  be  used 
for  small  demonstration  plots  of  grains,  grasses,  cultivated 
crops,  small  fruits  and  orchards;  the  other  half  in  larger 
tracts  for  permanent  rotation  of  grain  grasses  and  cultivated 
crops.  The  first  part  is  not  expected  to  show  a  profit, 
any  more  than  the  physics  or  chemistry  laboratories  are 
expected  to  show  a  profit.  In  fact  a  hundred  dollars  or 
two  spent  on  this  outdoor  laboratory  might  be  advisable. 
But  the  other  part  should  be  run  for  profit,  records  kept 
of  all  operating  expenses,  everything  done  on  a  business 
basis,  tools  cared  for,  the  land  kept  free  from  weeds,  and 
products  harvested  and  marketed  in  a  model  way.  True, 
the  cost  of  production  will  be  greater  per  acre  for  a  small 
tract  like  this,  but  it  can  be  made  to  pay.  Young  agricul- 
turists too  often  feel  their  services  are  too  valuable  to  spend 
much  time  on  the  school  plots.  This  is  a  mistaken  notion. 
The  farmer  is  skeptical  until  shown.  The  man  who  is  not 
afraid  to  put  in  ten  hours  or  more  a  day  on  the  school  farm 


398  RURAL  EDUCATION 

in  the  summer  can  make  it  pay  and  will  not  only  earn  his 
salary,  but  the  confidence  and  good  will  of  the  farmers. 
Student  labor  in  planting  and  harvesting  while  school  is 
in  session  is  very  necessary  for  its  training,  and  will  save 
considerable  expense.  I  believe  in  the  school  farm  and  also 
in  the  agriculturist's  not  being  ashamed  to  be  a  farmer. 
Happily  many  of  them  are  not,  but  some  give  that  impres- 
sion, and  they  always  injure  the  cause  for  which  they  are 
working. 

Institutes  have  been  held  at  the  associated  schools  several 
times  during  the  year.  On  several  occasions  the  schedule 
has  been  arranged  to  go  to  the  schools  in  rotation  each 
evening  until  the  entire  district  had  been  covered.  Often 
two  meetings  an  evening  are  held.  Three  or  four  speakers 
from  the  Central  School  take  part,  half  going  to  one  school 
and  half  to  the  other.  Then  two  speakers  exchange.  In 
this  way  at  least  three  persons  would  take  part  in  each  pro- 
gram. A  machine  and  good  roads  make  the  exchange 
possible  in  a  very  short  time.  From  one  hundred  to  one 
hundred  and  fifty  are  common  audiences  at  these  meet- 
ings. Topics  of  general  interest  to  the  community  are  dis- 
cussed. At  least  one  woman  of  the  faculty  takes  part  in 
the  program.  Often  speakers  from  the  University  Exten- 
sion Division  assist. 

The  uniform  course  of  study  in  the  associated  rural 
schools  is  practically  the  work  discussed  in  chapters  seven  to 
twenty-five  inclusive  of  this  book.  The  schools  are  super- 
vised by  the  Central  School  as  well  as  by  the  county  super- 
intendent. The  special  teachers  from  the  industrial  de- 
partments visit  the  associated  schools  from  time  to  time  and 
give  demonstrations  in  their  particular  branches,  as  well  as 
supervise  the  industrial  work.  The  rural  course  of  study 
articulates  directly  with  the  Junior  High  School  of  the 


ASSOCIATION  OF  SCHOOLS 


399 


central  district,  so  that  no  time  need  be  wasted  in  getting 
used  tojiigh  school,  as  so  often  happens. 

A  general  meeting  of  the  teachers  of  the  associated 
districts  is  held  about  once  a  month  on  Saturday  at  the 
Central  School.  An  all  day  session  beginning  at  nine  thirty 
and  closing  about  three  thirty  is  devoted  to  discussions  of 
the  problems  of  the  rural  schools.  The  work  in  home 
economics  is  conducted  by  the  supervisor  of  that  depart- 
ment in  the  Central  School.  Agricultural  and  manual 
training  discussions  are  stimulated  by  the  instructors  of 


Figure  145.     The  regular  monthly  teachers'  meeting  for  the  associated  schools. 
A  demonstration  of  the  hot  lunch  to  teachers    and    board    members.     The    . 
homemade  bookcase  for  the  circulating  library  can  be  seen  in  the  corner. 

those  departments,  while  the  normal  training  teacher  and  the 
superintendent  assist  in  a  more  general  way.  At  first  these 
meetings  were  called  by  the  superintendent  of  the  asso- 
ciated schools,  but  gradually  they  have  been  turned  over 
to  the  teachers  themselves,  until  they  now  have  a  per- 
manent organization,  and  a  program  committee  to  select 
the  topics  for  discussion.  Several  of  their  own  number 
are  on  the  program  at  each  meeting,  as  well  as  teachers 
from  the  Central  School.  Occasionally  an  outsider  is 


400 


RURAL  EDUCATION 


asked  to  speak.  Visiting  teachers  are  always  welcome  and 
often  attend.  Academic  subjects  as  well  as  industrial 
work  are  discussed,  and  musical  numbers  form  the  enter- 
tainment part  of  the  program,  while  much  valuable  help 
is  given  the  teachers  by  visits  to  the  school  by  the  super- 
intendent and  special  teachers.  Perhaps  the  most  direct 
benefit  to  the  rural  schools  is  the  course  of  study  and  the 
teachers'  meetings.  The  Associated  Board,  realizing  this, 
pays  for  the  transportation  of  the  teachers,  thus  encourag- 
ing them  to  attend.  Since  that  time  it  is  seldom  that 
one  of  the  fifteen  rural  teachers  is  absent  from  a  meeting. 
Luncheon  is  served  at  noon  in  the  dining  room  of  the 
Home  Economics  Department. 

Industrial  supplies  are  furnished  each  associated  school 
to  the  extent  of  fifteen  dollars'  worth  annually.  These 
supplies  include  weaving  materials,  clay  for  modeling, 
raffia  and  rattan  for  mats  and  basketry,  thin  lumber  for 
manual  training,  and  materials  for  the  work  in  sewing. 


Figure  146.     Preparing  industrial  material  for  the  rural  associated  schools. 


ASSOCIATION  OF  SCHOOLS  401 

Each  school  has  been  furnished  a  two-burner  kerosene  oil 
stove  and  oven  and  about  a  dozen  and  a  half  cooking  uten- 
sils for  the  hot  lunches  served  at  noon.  About  half  of  the 
schools  have  benches  and  tools  for  manual  training.  The 
rest  will  be  supplied  as  fast  as  they  desire  to  install  this 
work.  Rope  for  splicing  and  learning  to  tie  knots  has 
been  furnished  and  instruction  given  by  the  instructor 
from  the  Central  School.  A  collection  of  three  dozen 
bottles  of  weed,  grain,  and  grass  seeds  in  a  case  has  been 
made  for  each  school,  to  be  used  as  a  guide  in  taking  up 
similar  work  in  the  associated  schools. 

Contest  work  has  already  been  mentioned.  The  Asso- 
ciated Board  voted  $125  a  year  for  this  work  to  be  used 
at  the  discretion  of  the  superintendent.  Fifty  dollars  of 
this  is  used  in  prizes  for  the  annual  acre  yield  corn  contests 
and  seventy-five  dollars  for  the  associated  school  exhibits 
held  each  spring  at  the  Central  School.  The  highest  ten 
in  the  corn  contest  just  closed  averaged  over  eighty  bushels 
to  the  acre,  the  highest  being  one  hundred  sixteen  bushels 
and  five  pounds  of  shelled  corn,  as  determined  by  the  state 
officials  for  this  work,  and  the  lowest,  sixty  bushels  and 
twenty-four  pounds.  The  average  yield  at  a  cent  a  pound, 
which  these  boys  were  offered  at  husking  time  by  seed 
men,  will  pay  big  interest  on  five  hundred  dollar  land, 
after  paying  all  operating  expenses.  If  ten  boys,  all  of 
whom  are  under  high  school  age,  can  be  taught  to  increase 
production  along  one  line  to  such  an  extent,  what  can  a 
whole  community  accomplish,  if  they  become  interested 
in  better  farming?  This  is  a  theoretical  problem  that  it 
would  pay  every  school  district  to  make  practical. 

The  annual  exhibit  of  the  associated  schools  includes  all 
phases  of  school  work,  academic  as  well  as  industrial. 
Great  interest  has  been  shown  by  pupils  and  teachers 

26— 


402  RURAL  EDUCATION 

alike.  In  addition  to  the  individual  and  school  prizes,  a 
silver  cup  trophy  is  offered,  which  becomes  the  permanent 
property  of  any  school  winning  it  for  two  successive  years. 
The  premium  list  for  the  1915  spring  exhibit  follows: 

PREMIUM  LIST  FOR  CONTEST  IN  ASSOCIATED   SCHOOLS, 
SPRING  OF  1916 

PENMANSHIP 

-1.  Best  individual  specimen  of  writing,  includ- 
ing movement  exercises,  small  letters,  cap- 
itals, figures,  and  words 75  .50  .25 

2.     Best  general  display  from  all  grades 75  .50     .25 

GEOGRAPHY 

1.  Best  relief  map  of  Minnesota 75  .50     .25 

2.  Best  relief  map  of  any  continent 75  .50     .25 

3.  Best  drawn  map,  any  kind 75  .50     .25 

LANGUAGE 

1.  Best  booklet  on  any  one  of  the  following 

topics:  Corn,  Noxious  Weeds,  Vegetable 
Garden,  Strawberries,  Apples,  Poultry  for 
Pleasure  and  Profit,  Farm  Animals,  Bee 
Culture,  Home  Sanitation,  The  Typhoid 

Fly 75  .50     .25 

2.  Best  general  display  from  all  grades 75  .50     .25 

ARITHMETIC 

1.     Best  general  display  from  all  grades 75  .50     .25 

ELEMENTARY  INDUSTRIAL  WORK 

1.  Best  woven  mat,  yarn  or  cloth 75  .50     .25 

2.  Best  hammock 75  .50     .25 

3.  Best  napkin  ring 75  .50     .25 

4.  Best  raffia  or  reed  mat 75  .50     .25 

5.  Best  raffia  or  reed  basket 75  .50     .25 

6.  Best  yarn  cap  or  bonnet 75  .50     .25 

7.  Best  clay  exhibit 75  .50     .25 

8.  Best  general  exhibit  of  industrial  work 75  .50     .25 

SEWING 

1.  Best  needle  book 50  .35     .25 

2.  Best  outing  flannel  nolder 60  .35     .25 

3.  Best  gingham  holder 50  .35     .25 

4.  Best  sleevelets 50  .35     .25 

5.  Best  cap 50  .35     .25 

6.  Best  hemstitched  towel 75  .50     .25 

7.  Best  stockinet  darning 75  .50     .25 


ASSOCIATION  OF  SCHOOLS  403 

8.  Best  buttonholes 75     .50     .25 

9.  Best  gingham  bag 75     .50     .25 

10.  Best  sewing  apron 75  .50  .25 

11.  Best  hemmed  patch 75  .50  .25 

12.  Best  three-cornered  darn 75  .50  .25 

13.  Best  outing  flannel  nightgown 75  .50  .25 

14.  Best  overhand  patch 75  .50  .25 

15.  Best  general  exhibit  of  sewing 1.00 

Each  article  is  to  be  made  as  directed  in 
course  of  study. 

MANUAL  TRAINING 

1.  Best  match  scratcher 50     .35     .25 

2.  Best  plant  marker 50     .35     .25 

3.  Best  salt  box 75     .50     .25 

4.  Best  match  box 75     .50     .25 

5.  Best  other  article 75     .50     .25 

6.  Best  composition  on   "Manual  Training  in 

the  Rural  School" 75     .50     .25 

7.  Best  general  exhibit  in  manual  training 1.00 

AGRICULTURE 

1.  Corn  judging  contest 75     .50     .25 

2.  Corn  germinator  with  germinating  corn  ready 

to  count.     Must  include  report  on  test  and 

opinion  of  seed  by  exhibitor 75     .50     .25 

3.  Long  and  short  splice  (both  must  be  included)  .75     .50     .25 

4.  Best  general  exhibit  of  rope  work  including 

knots  and  splices 75     .50     .25 

5.  Best  noxious  weed  seed  exhibit  to  be  selected 

and  determined  by  the  school 75     .50     .25 

6.  Best  general  exhibit  in  agriculture  work 1.00 

Saving  banks  have  been  established  in  some  of  the 
schools  due  to  the  interest  shown  by  one  of  the  teachers. 
Nearly  thirty  depositors  had  saved  about  one  hundred 
dollars  in  this  school  alone  during  the  first  four  months. 
Monday  is  banking  day,  and  all  deposits  are  made  in  the 
morning,  the  students  receiving  stamps  as  their  certificates. 
As  soon  as  one  dollar  has  been  saved  it  is  taken  to  one  of 
the  banks  in  Cokato  and  deposited.  This  is  done  for  the 
pupils  by  the  teacher.  The  idea  is  an  interesting  one  for 
rural  schools  and  is  to  be  commended. 

Drainage  has  been  mentioned  as  one  of  the  practical 
things  the  farmers  have  had  done,  or  at  least  the  work 


404 


RURAL  EDUCATION 


ASSOaiATION  OF  SCHOOLS 


405 


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Si 


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406 


RURAL  EDUCATION 


viAino 


ASSOCIATION  OF  SCHOOLS  407 

has  been  surveyed  and  estimated  by  the  school.  The 
accompanying  cuts  show  the  evolution  of  a  farm  from  a 
marsh  to  a  very  valuable  piece  of  property.  The  improve- 
ments were  largely  planned  and  executed  by  the  two  young 
men  who  graduated  from  the  "Short  Course."  The  first 
drawing  shows  the  original  "frog  ranch"  as  it  was  called 
by  one  of  the  young  men  in  his  graduation  exercises.  It 
also  shows  the  drainage  plans  which  were  completed  the 
next  year.  The  second  drawing  shows  the  crops  the  next 
year  following,  and  the  third,  the  rearrangement  of  the 
fields  and  the  permanent  rotation  plans.  At  least  ten  acres 
of  this  land  were  under  water  and  hence  worthless.  This 
is  now  the  best  land  on  the  farm  and  worth  $125  to  $150 
an  acre,  but  is  not  for  sale  at  any  price.  Ten  acres  more 
were  good  only  for  permanent  pasture,  and  the  other  sixty 
acres  of  the  farm  were  materially  benefited  by  the  drain- 
age. Five  thousand  feet  of  from  four  to  seven-inch  tile 
were  used  at  a  total  cost  of  $450.  At  least  $1,000  above 
the  cost  of  drainage  was  realized  on  the  reclaimed  land 
alone,  not  to  mention  the  improvements  of  the  other  land. 
Similar  work  has  been  done  on  other  farms,  due  directly 
to  the  influence  of  the  school. 

Association  is  not  a  panacea  for  all  the  educational  ills 
by  any  means.  In  spite  of  the  fact  that  so  much  good  work 
along  lines  suggested  in  this  chapter  has  been  done  in  many 
communities  besides  the  one  mentioned  as  the  type,  there 
is  a  certain  amount  of  dissatisfaction.  Even  at  Cokato, 
where  the  spirit  of  co-operation  is  as  good  as  that  found 
anywhere  in  the  state,  one  district  withdrew  shortly  after 
it  became  associated.  This  was  done  purely  on  account  of 
personal  differences,  as  the  district  is  now  paying  twice  the 
amount  in  tuition  that  association  cost.  Its  local  school 
taxes  have  increased  while  those  of  the  districts  associated 


408  RURAL  EDUCATION 

have  nearly  all  decreased,  and  both  it  and  the  central  dis- 
trict have  lost  the  $200  associated  aid.  Almost  the  only 
objection  raised  is  the  cost  of  association,  and  yet  in  the 
entire  district  associated  at  Cokato  the  average  school 
taxes  are  only  5.6  mills.  As  two  mills  are  for  association, 
these  fifteen  schools  average  only  3.6  mills  for  local  school 
support.  In  practically  every  district  the  tuition  bill 
would  be  greater  out  of  association  than  the  entire  cost  of 
association.  If  only  a  small  fraction  of  the  increase  in 
farm  yields  and  land  values  is  due  to  the  schools  under 
association,  which  the  critics  cannot  deny,  then  association 
is  worth  many  times  what  it  costs.  It  is  like  killing  the 
goose  that  laid  the  golden  egg  to  break  up  association  of 
schools,  as  has  been  done  in  some  places.  The  Putnam 
Act,  including  association  of  rural  schools,  is  one  of  the 
best  school  laws  ever  placed  on  the  statutes  in  Minnesota. 
It  is  primarily  a  law  that  benefits  the  rural  school  and  the 
rural  community,  and  yet,  strange  to  say,  the  farmers 
themselves  have  been  its  greatest  enemy.  That  they  have 
been  misled  in  the  belief  that  their  general  taxes  have  been 
raised  thereby,  by  politicians  and  other  interested  parties 
is  certain,  but  such  misunderstandings  will  adjust  them- 
selves in  the  end.  The  "Minnesota  Plan"  is  likely  to  be 
more  popular  than  ever,  when  public  sentiment  crystal- 
lizes in  favor  of  better  rural  schools. 


CHAPTER  XXIX 
CONSOLIDATION  OF  RURAL  SCHOOLS 

In  a  recent  lecture  on  community  welfare  a  speaker 
made  the  statement,  "The  one-room  rural  school  is  no 
good."  He  cited  the  results  of  a  survey  of  the  rural  schools 
of  Wisconsin  among  which  was  his  home  school  as  a  child. 
This  school  had  sent  but  three  individuals  to  college  in 
twenty-five  years.  The  building  and  equipment  had 
remained  about  the  same,  and  the  community  life  had 
changed  but  little  in  all  that  time.  There  are  probably 
many  who  would  disagree  with  the  lecturer  and  stoutly 
defend  the  school  of  their  fathers.  But,  notwithstanding 
our  sentimental  toleration  of  the  "little  red  school  house," 
it  has  outlived  its  day  as  surely  as  the  occasional  prairie 
"schooner"  that  may  be  seen  on  the  Western  plains.  Asso- 
ciation with  a  central  high  school  helps  amazingly,  as  shown 
in  the  last  chapter,  and  for  the  present  is  undoubtedly 
better  for  some  sections  of  the  country  than  consolidation. 
In  localities  where  roads  are  poor  and  the  country  is  sparsly 
settled,  consolidation  will  be  retarded;  but  the  time  is 
about  at  hand  when,  the  country  will  demand  that  rural 
children  be  given  equal  educational  advantages  with  the 
village  child.  Why  not?  The  country  is  surely  not  too 
poor  to  educate  its  children.  Modern  machinery  relieves 
the  farm  of  much  of  its  drudgery  and  the  necessity  of 
keeping  boys  and  girls  at  home  to  work  no  longer  exists. 
The  chief  obstacles  in  the  way  of  better  country  schools 
are  the  school  buildings  and  their  inadequate  equipment. 

Consolidation  of  schools  means  several  things  that 
previously  did  not  exist.  It  means,  first  of  all,  combining 
the  territory  of  two  or  more  school  districts  for  the  support 

409 


410  RURAL  EDUCATION 

of  the  school.  It  means  concentration  of  power.  "In 
union  there  is  strength. "  It  means  larger  buildings,  in- 
crease of  school  taxation,  transportation  of  pupils,  reor- 
ganization of  grades,  state  inspection,  and  state  aid.  On 
account  of  these  changes,  conservative  districts  have  been 
slow  to  effect  consolidation.  In  Minnesota  a  few  years  ago 
a  law  was  passed  which  encouraged  consolidation  of  rural 
schools  to  such  an  extent  that  over  one  hundred  have  been 
effected  since  that  time.  A  rural  school  commissioner  has 
been  appointed  who  devotes  his  time  largely  to  these  schools. 

The  Holmberg  Act  of  1911  created  three  classes  of  con- 
solidated districts.  Class  A  must  have  an  area  of  at  least 
eighteen  sections  of  land,  have  at  least  four  departments, 
and  be  well  equipped  for  instruction  in  agriculture  and 
other  industrial  work.  The  state  aid  available  for  such  a 
school  is  $500  annually.  Class  B  schools  must  have  the 
same  territory  as  Class  A,  three  departments,  and  good 
equipment.  They  receive  $250  annual  aid  and  building 
aid  as  for  Class  A.  These  schools  may  draw  as  much  as 
$2,000  for  transportation  of  pupils.  Class  C  schools  have 
twelve  or  more  sections,  two  departments,  and  draw  rural 
school  aid.  High  and  graded  schools  having  a  tax  in  ex- 
cess of  twenty  mills  and  rural  schools  exceeding  fifteen 
mills  are  entitled  to  further  state  aid. 

The  various  steps  in  the  process  of  consolidation  in 
Minnesota  are  briefly  given  for  those  who  may  not  be 
familiar  with  the  Holmberg  Act.  A  plot  of  the  proposed 
territory  to  be  consolidated  must  be  prepared  by  the  county 
superintendent  and  submitted  to  the  state  Superintendent 
of  Education  for  his  approval.  If  approved,  petitions  are 
circulated  in  each  of  the  districts  interested.  Only  resi- 
dent property  owners  can  sign  the  petition,  and  the  sig- 
natures must  be  certified.  At  least  twenty-five  per  cent 


CONSOLIDATION  OF  RURAL  SCHOOLS  411 

of  the  freeholders  of  the  district  must  sign  the  petition 
after  which  it  is  filed  with  the  county  superintendent. 
Within  ten  days  the  county  superintendent  must  give  ten 
days'  posted  notice,  three  in  each  district,  and  one  week's 
published  notice,  of  an  election  to  vote  on  the  question.  At 
least  twenty-five  legal  voters  must  be  present  at  the  elec- 
tion, voting  by  ballot  for  or  against  consolidation,  and  the 
polls  must  be  open  at  least  one  hour.  The  result  must  be 
certified  to  the  county  superintendent  by  the  chairman 
and  clerk  of  the  meeting  who  are  chosen  by  the  voters 
present.  A  majority  of  all  votes  cast  legalizes  consolida- 
tion. The  county  superintendent  notifies  the  clerk  of  each 
district,  the  county  auditor,  and  the  Superintendent  of 
Education  that  consolidation  has  been  effected. 

Election  of  officers  for  the  new  independent  district 
takes  place  at  a  meeting  called  for  that  purpose.  Ten 
days  posted  notice  must  be  given  by  the  county  superin- 
tendent before  such  a  meeting.  Six  officers  are  elected. 
As  soon  as  the  new  officers  are  elected,  the  records,  funds, 
and  other  property  of  the  several  districts  must  be  turned 
over  to  the  new  district.  Bonded  indebtedness  at  the  time 
of  consolidation  remains  on  the  original  districts. 

Several  forms  of  consolidated  schools  exist  in  Minnesota. 
High  or  graded  schools  with  sufficient  area  to  come  within 
the  Holmberg  Act  may  qualify  for  state  aid.  Several  are 
already  doing  so.  All  students  living  more  than  two  miles 
from  the  school  must  be  provided  with  transportation.  In 
these  schools  the  village  becomes  the  center  of  the  school 
activities,  and,  since  in  small  towns  the  environment  is 
essentially  rural,  the  purpose  of  the  law  is  not  defeated. 
Perhaps  the  best  type  of  consolidated  school  is  that  found 
in  the  country  away  from  any  railroad  or  village.  It  is  no 
longer  a  fond  dream  of  the  imagination  to  have  a  high 


412 


RURAL  EDUCATION 


school  education  carried  almost  to  the  very  doors  of  the 
farmer's  boys  and  girls.  This  is  now  an  actual  reality  in 
many  schools.  Modern  buildings  with  all  the  conveniences 
of  city  schools  are  being  erected  sometimes  miles  away  from 
any  town.  Advanced  ideas  of  school  architecture  and 
sanitation  are  being  carried  out,  so  that  as  a  class  the  con- 
solidated schools  of  the  state  are  second  to  none.  Under 
the  able  leadership  of  Mr.  E.  M.  Phillips,  former  Rural 
School  Commissioner,  these  schools  more  than  kept  pace 
with  Minnesota's  vigorous  educational  policy. 

The  consolidated  school  idea  probably  became  best 
known  in  Minnesota  through  the  activities  of  the  school 
at  Lewiston,  .in  Winona  county.  Enough  districts  com- 
bined with  the  school  in  the  little  village  to  maintain  not 
only  a  high  school  course,  but  departments  of  industrial 


Figure  149.     Rope  work  in  a  consolidated  school. 


CONSOLIDATION  OF  RURAL  SCHOOLS  413 

work  as  well.  A  school  farm  is  maiirtained  and  effective 
agricultural  work  done.  The  principal  of  the  school  is 
also  the  agriculturist.  Wood  and  iron  work  is  part  of  the 
regular  course  for  the  boys  and  they  have  recently  built 
a  blacksmith  shop  and  a  model  henhouse.  The  girls  have 
facilities  for  studying  home  economics.  Special  features 
of  the  school  are  the  extension  work  done  on  the  farms, 
contests,  institutes  and  the  short  courses  for  farm  boys  and 
girls.  On  account  of  the  unusual  work  which  is  being  done 
in  this  district,  the  school  was  selected  as  one  of  the  orig- 
inal Putnam  schools.  This  school  was  thus  honored,  as 
all  of  the  other  nine  were  high  schools.  A  large  amount 
of  industrial  work  is  done  in  the  grades 'by  what  the  prin- 
cipal, Mr.  Edwin  S.  Billings,  calls  the  "direct — indirect" 
method.  The  grade  teachers  are  first  taught  how  to  do  the 
work  in  which  they  give  instruction  to  the  pupils. 

The  John  Swaney  Consolidated  School  of  Putnam 
county,  Illinois,  has  a  national  reputation.  It  was  named 
for  the  man  who  was  broad-minded  and  large-hearted  enough 
to  give  twenty-four  acres  of  valuable  wooded  land  for  a 
campus.  The  school  is  located  in  the  open  country  away 
from  any  town.  The  most  remarkable  thing  about  it,  per- 
haps, is  the  fact  that  the  movement  for  consolidation  and 
transportation  of  pupils  started  with  the  farmers  themselves. 
So  enthusiastic  did  many  of  them  become  that  about  $2,000 
was  raised  by  private  subscription,  in  addition  to  the  gift 
already  mentioned.  The  school  was  erected  and  equipped 
at  a  cost  of  about  $15,000.  Practical  courses  are  offered 
similar  to  those  discussed  for  the  Lewiston  school.  A  school 
farm  is  maintained  on  the  campus.  Two  wagons,  especially 
constructed  for  the  purpose,  transport  the  pupils  in  spite  of 
the  Illinois  corn  land  mud.  Good  teachers  are  provided 
and  cared  for.  It  was  soon  discovered  that,  if  efficient 


414  RURAL  EDUCATION 

teachers  were  to  be  kept  in  the  county,  provision  must  be 
made  to  house  them.  Accordingly,  a  few  farmers,  at  their 
own  expense,  fitted  up  one  of  the  old  schoolhouses  into  a 
neat  seven-room  cottage.  The  teachers  club  together,  hire 
a  housekeeper,  and  divide  the  living  expenses.  They  pay 
nine  dollars  a  month  rent  for  the  cottage.  Another  build- 
ing on  the  campus  has  been  fitted  for  the  janitor's  home. 
The  janitor  is  engaged  for  the  entire  year  and  has  charge  of 
the  school,  the  stables  and  the  grounds.  Such  a  school  and 
community  deserve  a  national  reputation. 

The  history  of  consolidation  of  schools  in  the  United 
States  is  an  interesting  one.  In  early  Colonial  times  the 
township  was  the  unit  of  school  administration.  Sparse 
settlement,  impassable  roads,  and  lack  of  public  funds  pre- 
vented even  a  dream  of  consolidation  in  those  early  days. 
Therefore  as  settlement  increased,  more  schools  were  needed 
and  the  New  England  taxpayers,  lovers  of  true  democracy, 
insisted  that  each  school  govern  its  own  affairs.  Accord- 
ingly, the  smaller  district  was  a  necessity.  The  same  year 
that  Washington  became  President  of  the  United  States, 
Massachusetts  passed  a  law  bringing  into  being  the  small 
school  district,  which  was  destined  to  become  the  governing 
unit  for  most  of  the  schools  of  the  country.  Horace  Mann 
once  declared  this  law  to  be  the  most  unfortunate  ever 
enacted  under  common  school  legislation.  More  than  a 
century  and  a  half  later  this  same  New  England,  convinced 
of  the  error  of  its  ways,  first  saw  the  necessity  of  centraliza- 
tion in  order  to  save  the  country  schools.  It  was  during 
the  term  of  office  of  that  other  great  President,  Abraham 
Lincoln,  that  the  same  state  that  had  unwittingly  passed  the 
reactionary  law,  created  the  consolidated  school  district. 
A  short  time  afterwards  a  law  providing  for  transportation 
at  public  expense  made  the  consolidated  school  possible. 


CONSOLIDATION  OF  RURAL  SCHOOLS  415 

Progress  was  naturally  slow  at  first.  The  same  cry  of 
"fad"  that  has  always  been  heard  from  reactionaries  re- 
tarded the  movement.  But  reactionaries  have  never  yet 
been  able  to  permanently  retard  the  progressive  American 
spirit,  The  idea  of  consolidation  permeated  the  rest  of 
New  England;  other  Eastern  states  adopted  it;  the  plan 
spread  to  the  Middle  West;  it  became  popular  in  the  South; 
and  even  the  Western  States,  in  spite  of  many  obstacles, 
are  consolidating  their  rural  schools  for  the  same  reason 
that  Massachusetts  first  started  the  movement.  Nearly 
every  state  in  the  Union  has  now  done  something  toward 
centralizing  its  common  schools.  In  many  states  thousands 
of  one-room  schools  have  been  closed,  and  in  their  places 
are  hundreds  of  flourishing  consolidated  schools.  Even  in 
Hawaii  this  plan  has  been  "annexed,"  and  Canada  has 
profited  by  the  experience  of  "Uncle  Sam." 

The  objections  to  consolidation  have  been  numerous, 
but  practically  all  have  been  met,  where  public  sentiment 
was  really  in  favor  of  the  movement.  The  most  serious 
objection  raised  by  the  average  community  is  the  cost. 
The  fundamental  cause  of  the  poor  schools  found  in  the 
country  as  compared  with  those  in  the  villages  and  cities 
is  to  be  found  in  the  fact  that  the  latter  are  willing  to  tax 
themselves  two  and  one  half  times  as  much  for  schools  as 
the  former,  taking  the  United  States  as  a  whole.  That  the 
total  cost  of  establishing  and  maintaining  a  consolidated 
school  will  be  more  than  the  average  cost  for  one-room 
schools  is  probably  true.  If  not  enough  is  spent  in  the 
average  district  to  maintain  efficient  schools,  it  should  be 
true.  In  states  like  Minnesota  and  others  of  the  North- 
west where  more  than  generous  aid  is  given  to  the  schools, 
the  cost  is  negligible  as  compared  to  the  results.  In  many 
communities  modern  schools  have  been  established,  stu- 


416  RURAL  EDUCATION 

dents  have  been  transported,  and  efficient  results  obtained 
at  very  little  increase  in  total  cost,  and  a  decided  decrease 
in  the  cost  per  pupil.  The  old  plan  meant  irregular  attend- 
ance and  short  terms;  the  new  means  the  reverse. 

Transportation  of  pupils  has  been  a  veritable  nightmare 
to  some  of  those  who  oppose  centralization.  I  have  had 
those  who  suddenly  took  a  great  interest  in  their  neighbors' 
children  tell  me  that  these  pupils  would  surely  contract 
pneumonia,  if  they  had  to  ride  in  a  cold  rig  three  or  four 
miles  to  school.  Others  were  afraid  of  a  stove,  because  it 
would  do  injury  if  the  wagon  or  sled  should  be  tipped 
over.  Soapstones  and  othjer  warmers  were  ineffective,  and 
fur  robes  would  be  torn  to  pieces.  Just  why  these  other- 
wise peaceful  and  harmless  young  persons  should  suddenly 
become  barbarians,  while  the  maniacal  driver  was  planning 
their  annihilation,  has  never  been  explained.  The  facts 
are,  and  they  scarcely  need  stating,  that  the  vans  can  be 
made  as  comfortable,  as  safe,  and  as  desirable  as  the  best 
family  conveyance  in  the  neighborhood.  Business  can 
afford  the  best  there  is  for  the  "delivery"  of  merchandise 
in  many  places.  Why  cannot  children  be  "delivered" 
speedily  and  comfortably  to  school?  They  will  be  in  the 
ideal  rural  school. 

The  many  advantages  of  consolidation  hardly  need  dis- 
cussion, as  they  are  evident  to  any  observing  person.  Among 
them  should  be  mentioned  first  of  all  the  same  educational 
advantages  for  the  country  children  that  the  city  boys  and 
girls  possess.  This  is  merely  the  application  of  the  Roose- 
veltian  "square  deal"  to  the  rural  communities,  which  the 
country  folk  themselves  more  than  any  other  agency  have 
prevented  until  recently.  Better  schools  bring  a  better 
citizenship.  More  progressive  farmers  will  settle  in  the 
community.  Land  will  increase  in  value,  as  actual  figures 


CONSOLIDATION  OF  RURAL  SCHOOLS  417 

demonstrate.  More  desirable  renters  can  be  obtained,  but 
there  will  be  fewer  farms  to  rent,  as  living  in  the  country 
will  be  more  desirable.  The  increase  in  land  values  much 
more  than  offsets  the  small  increase  in  taxation,  unless  we 
figure  as  the  farmer  I  once  heard  of  who  objected  to  larger 
crops,  because  his  threshing  bills  would  be  so  much  higher. 
Finally,  consolidation  will  greatly  accelerate  the  "back  to 
the  farm"  movement. 

As  a  solution  of  the  country  life  problem  the  consolidated 
schools  stand  pre-eminent.  In  this  connection  Miss  Mabel 
Carney,  in  her  excellent  treatment  of  the  subject  in  "Country 
Life  and  the  Country  School"  says,  "Let  it  be  repeated  that 
the  consolidated  country  school  in  its  complete  and  fully 
adopted  form  is  the  best  solution  of  the  country  school  prob- 
lem yet  devised.  Personally,  I  do  not  wish  to  dogmatize 
upon  any  phase  of  country  life,  or  anything  else,  but  upon 
this  point  I  stand  firm.  Years  of  struggle  as  a  country 
teacher  have  thoroughly  convinced  me  of  this  truth,  and  I 
challenge  any  one,  be  he  farmer  or  educator,  to  assume  the 
full  responsibilities  of  a  country  school  without  becoming 
persuaded."  That  so  many  communities  in  so  many  states 
have  already  become  persuaded,  speaks  well  for  the  future. 


CHAPTER  XXX 

COUNTRY  LIFE  AND  THE  IDEAL 
RURAL  SCHOOL 

The  great  country  life  movement  started  when  Presi- 
dent Roosevelt  appointed  his  commission  is  only  just  begin- 
ning to  gain  momentum.  It  has  a  fair  start,  but  when  the 
half-aroused  country  folk  really  awaken  to  their  responsi- 
bilities as  well  as  their  opportunities,  nothing  can  prevent 
the  rural  population  of  this  country  from  the  realization  of 
the  kind  of  life  to  which  it  is  entitled.  City  life  is  artificial 
at  best.  Country  life  should  be  the  ideal  life.  Long  work- 
ing hours,  lack  of  conveniences,  poor  roads,  social  ostra- 
cism, inadequate  educational  facilities,  and  other  causes 
have  thus  far  prevented  this  happy  consumation.  But 
America  has  solved  big  problems;  andit  will  solve  this  one. 
The  school  will  be  no  mean  factor  in  the  solution. 

The  object  of  life  is  neither  to  merely  eke  out  an  exis- 
tence nor  to  amass  a  fortune,  whether  it  be  in  the  city  or 
country.  "It  is  not  all  of  life  to  live."  Culture  is  as  es- 
sential in  country  life  as  in  city  life.  Too  often  the  object 


Figure  150.  One  ot  the  demonstration  farms  working  in  conjunction  with  the 
central  school.  Thia  farm  was  drained  and  a  rotation  system  planned  by 
"short  course"  boys.  See  pages  4U4  to  407. 

418 


COUNTRY  LIFE  419 

in  rural  life  is  to  raise  more  corn,  to  feed  more  hogs,  to  buy 
more  land,  to  raise  more  corn,  to  feed  more  hogs.  An 
excellent  means  to  an  end,  but  what  is  the  end?  One  often 
sees  great  barns  erected  high  and  dry  to  prevent  disease, 
well  lighted  and  equipped  with  the  most  modern  systems 
of  ventilation.  Commendable,  you  say,  and  rightly  so. 
Modern  industry  has  shown  that  it  is  profitable  to  do 
these  things  for  the  cattle,  the  hogs  and  other  animals; 
but  modern  country  life  has  not  yet  been  able  to  prove  to 
the  farmer  that  it  is  still  more  necessary  to  provide  sanita- 
tion, conveniences  and  something  for  the  higher  life.  How 
many  farm  homes  have  a  special  system  of  ventilation,  and 
how  many  have  a  library?  Some  have. 

Rural  recreation  is  now  being  provided  in  many  com- 
munities. City  employes  usually  have  their  Saturday 
afternoons  off.  The  law  of  fatigue  holds  for  physical  as 
well  as  for  mental  work  and  has  proved  that  within  reason- 
able limits  shorter  hours  with  greater  application  of  effort 
are  conducive  to  products  of  at  least  as  large  a  quantity 
and  better  quality.  Why  not  apply  this  law  more  generally 
to  the  farms?  If  the  Saturday  afternoon  picnic  and  ball 
game  are  profitable  for  some  rural  folk,  why  not  for  all? 
The  value  of  rural  social  life  is  being  recognized  more  and 
more.  The  rural  church,  the  farmers'  clubs,  the  women's 
clubs  and  other  organizations  are  making  themselves  felt 
in  the  country  as  never  before.  Already  the  dawn  of  a 
brighter  day  appears  on  the  horizon  of  a  new  country  life. 

The  rural  school,  as  previously  indicated,  must  be  the 
very  heart  of  the  community.  In  a  recent  lecture  before 
the  Minnesota  Educational  Association  on  "The  Schools 
That  Made  Denmark  Famous,"  Mr.  H.  W.  Foght,  of  the 
United  States  Bureau  of  Education,  showed  conclusively 
this  fact.  The  following  abstract  from  the  lecture  is  taken 


420  RURAL  EDUCATION 

from  the  "Proceedings"  of  the  association:  "The  lecture 
began  with  an  emphasis  of  the  fact  that  the  schools,  more 
than  anything  else,  had  made  Denmark  the  agricultural 
nation  that  it  is  to-day.  Fifty  or  sixty  years  ago  Denmark 
was  backward  agriculturally  as  a  result  of  war,  and  the 
nation  was  left  in  a  lamentable  condition.  Then  the  poets, 
philosophers,  preachers  and  teachers  came  to  the  rescue. 
The  watchward  of  the  time  was,  'Educate  every  man, 
woman  and  child  in  the  kingdom,  and  educate  them  for 
every-day  needs/  Thus,  within  a  lifetime,  the  nation  has 
set  up  a  rural  school  system  little  short  of  marvelous.  The 
Danish  farm  boys  and  girls  enter  the  elementary  rural 
schools  at  the  age  of  six  or  seven.  They  are  all  obliged  to 
attend  school  until  they  have  completed  the  eight  grades. 
Then  the  so-called  apprentice  school,  which  is  really  learn- 
ing practical  work  under  government  supervision,  begins 
and  continues  for  three  years.  When  the  youth  is  at  last 
eighteen  years  of  age,  he  enters  a  most  remarkable  culture 
school,  known  as  the  folk  high  school.  Forty-eight  per 
cent  of  all  the  farm  youth  attend  these  remarkable  schools. 
Students  are  taken  from  eighteen  to  ninety-nine  years  of 
age;  and,  indeed,  very  many  old  men  and  women  attend. 
This  school  has  a  one  and  two-year  course.  It  is  followed 
by  practical  work  in  one  of  the  many  local  agricultural 
schools  which  are,  in  reality,  small  local  agricultural  col- 
leges. The  girls  at  this  point  attend  rural  schools  of  house- 
hold economics.  The  result  of  this  system  of  schools  is 
such  that  the  average  farm  boy  or  girl  returns  at  the  age  of 
nineteen  or  twenty  to  the  farm  and  farm  tasks,  contented 
to  live  there  and  to  treat  the  soil  in  a  scientific  manner. 
These  schools  have  made  it  possible  for  the  Danish  farmers 
to  make  good  incomes  from  small  tracts  of  land,  which,  if 
they  were  handled  the  way  we  treat  our  lands,  would  mean 


COUNTRY  LIFE  421 

immediate  bankruptcy."  Such  schools  may  not  be  ideal, 
but  they  surely  come  more  nearly  being  so  than  most  of 
those  with  which  we  are  familiar. 

Of  the  various  agencies  in  this  country  that  have  en- 
tered into  the  reorganization  of  our  system  in  offering 
valuable  constructive  criticism,  probably  none  is  entitled 
to  more  credit  than  the  Bankers'  Associations.  In  Minne- 
sota, under  the  able  leadership  of  Mr.  Joseph  Chapman,  this 
organization  has  consistently  championed  the  cause  of 
practical  education.  In  a  financial  way,  collectively  and 
individually,  the  bankers  have  rendered  valuable  assis- 
tance in  agricultural  contests  and  other  work. 

The  county  superintendency,  in  a  measure  at  least,  is 
the  key  to  the  situation.  The  ideal  rural  school  cannot 
be  attained  until  this  office  is  removed  from  politics.  As 
long  as  efficient  and  progressive  men  and  women  are  mar- 
tyrs to  political  intrigue  or  to  the  malice  of  parsimonious 
taxpayers,  merely  on  account  of  their  efficiency  and  progress- 
iveness — just  so  long  must  the  schools  suffer.  In  many 
states  this  has  been  done  more  or  less  effectively.  In  those 
states  where  a  constitutional  amendment  is  necessary  for 
the  enactment  of  laws  making  educational  requirements 
for  this  office,  it  is  the  duty  of  the  educators  themselves, 
through  their  state  associations,  to  urge  the  passage  of  such 
amendments. 

Progressive  county  superintendents  already  favor  such 
action.  No  self-respecting  candidate  cares  to  wage  a  fight 
that  involves  time,  money  and  sometimes  even  reputation, 
to  prove  his  superiority  over  an  opponent  that  may  be 
backed  by  some  powerful  organization,  whether  it  be 
church,  lodge,  or  political  ring.  Let  the  candidate  for  this 
office  stand  squarely  where  he  belongs — on  his  own  merits 
and  fitness  for  the  position.  Then  let  an  educational 


422  RURAL  EDUCATION 

board  for  the  county  choose  the  superintendent  of  schools 
from  within  the  county  or  out,  as  seems  best.  Fortunately 
for  the  schools,  the  great  majority  of  county  superinten- 
dents are  earnest,  faithful,  and  efficient,  in  spite  of  anti- 
quated laws.  Too  often  this  office  does  not  have  the  re- 
spect that  it  should.  A  superintendent  who  is  qualified 
and  whose  heart  is  in  his  work  neither  receives  the  appre- 
ciation nor  the  remuneration  to  which  he  is  entitled.  I 
have  known  able  men  and  women  who  have  done  more 
to  advance  the  welfare  of  the  county  and  make  known  its 
advantages,  materially  as  well  as  educationally,  beyond  the 
county  lines,  than  all  the  real  estate  firms  and  commercial 
clubs  combined.  All  this  was  done  through  local  and 
state  contest  work  in  agricultural  and  industrial  lines,  as 
well  as  regular  academic  work.  And  yet  these  faithful 
workers  receive  a  salary,  perhaps  half  as  large  as  the  county 
treasurer  or  auditor,  and  in  the  end  they  may  expect  to  be 
turned  out  of  office  for  doing  their  duty  instead  of  mending 
political  fences.  Such  a  state  of  affairs  is  an  insult  to  the 
office  and  a  disgrace  to  a  state  that  tolerates  it.  All  honor 
to  the  hosts  of  worthy  county  superintendents.  They  will 
be  made  real  supervisors  in  the  ideal  rural  school. 

In  conclusion  the  ideal  rural  school  is  not  a  myth.  It  is 
attainable.  Such  a  school  will  provide  for  the  physical, 
moral,  mental  and  religious  welfare  of  the  individual. 
Whether  there  be  one  room  or  many,  the  building  will  be 
modern,  sanitary,  and  well  equipped.  The  grounds,  park- 
like  rather  than  bleak  and  barren,  will  be  inspirational  and 
aesthetic  and  will  provide  for  physical  as  well  as  agricultural 
instruction.  Nomadism  will  have  vanished  and  the  rural 
teacher,  like  the  country  preacher,  will  have  become  as 
much  a  permanent  part  of  the  community  as  the  farmer. 
The  teachers'  cottage  will  be  a  conspicuous  part  of  the 


COUNTRY  LIFE 


423 


Boy/  Toilet 


yf 


Tue\c.Turnoce 
'R.oom 


On  excavated 


Figure  151. — Suggested  basement  for  model  school. 


Figure  152. — Floor  plan  of  one-teacher  model  school. 


424 


RURAL  EDUCATION 


Figure  153.      Modern  community  school  building  at  Payette,  Idaho. 


Figure  154.      A  model  rural  school  building. 


COUNTRY  LIFE  425 

campus.  There  will  be  demand  for  only  a  superior  type  of 
teacher,  highly  trained  and  peculiarly  adapted  to  modern 
country  life.  The  state  will  do  its  part  and  there  will  be 
real  inspection  of  rural  schools.  The  farmer  will  realize 
that  city  school  quality  of  instruction  cannot  be  given  on  a 
country  school  tax  rate,  and  the  school  will  be  made  a 
community  center.  Through  its  redirected  course  of  study 
it  will  be  the  leading  spirit  in  a  broader  country  life,  in 
making  better  farms,  better  homes  and  better  people.  In 
that  day  when  public  sentiment  shall  make  Education  as 
honorable  as  War  and  Politics,  shall  the  "Ideal  Rural 
School"  be  attained.  Then  also  shall  the  teacher  be  exalted 
to  her  rightful  position  and  we  shall  exclaim  with  the  poet: 

To-day,  as  by  the  old  schoolhouse  I  passed, 

I  saw  a  face  where  years  of  toil  and  care 

Had  left  their  mark  and  yet  to  me  'twas  fair 
In  memory's  magic  light  upon  it  cast. 

My  boyhood  years  are  told  again  since  last 

I  thought  her  cruel,  and  lessons  hard  to  learn; 

Ah  me!  I've  found  a  teacher  far  more  stern, 
And  learned  hard  lessons  in  a  school  more  vast. 

God's  richest  blessings  on  thee,  faithful  one, 

Of  that  vast  throng  whose  skill  and  patience  mold 

The  nation's  destiny!     A  service  thine 

Immeasurable,  not  bought  with  paltry  gold. 

When  school  is  out,  and  evening's  first  stars  shine, 
Thou'lt  hear  the  blessed  Master's  voice,  "Well  done!" 


INDEX 

(References  are  to  pages.) 


Accounts,  184 
Advantages  of 

Association,  395 

Consolidation,  416 
Agriculture,  77,  207,  331 
Animal  husbandry  booklets,  346 
Arithmetic,  175 
Art,  149 

Assignment  of  lessons,  74 
Association  of  schools,  380 

Bacteria,  356 
Biography,  154 
Birds,  353 
Booklets,  331 

Bacteria,  356 

Birds,  353 

Bread  baking,  357 

Cattle,  349 

Corn,  333 

Drainage,  361 

Flies,  355 

Good  roads,  361 

Hogs,  351 

Home  economics,  355 

Horses,  352 

Insects,  337 

Orchards,  341 

Poultry,  347 

Rotation  of  crops,  335 

Strawberries,  340 

Vegetable  garden,  343 


Weeds,  336 

Wood  preservatives,  360 
Bread  making,  357 

Cattle,  349 

Child  development,  24 
Civics,  164 

Circulating  library,  377 
Consolidation  of  schools,  409 
Contests,  139,  367,  368,  401 
Corn,  333 

Corporal  punishment,  20,  74 
Country  life,  418 
County  agent,  372 
County  superintendent,  421 
County  training  schools,  61 
Course  of  study 

Industrial,  216 

Junior  high  school,  394 

Normal,  69 

Rural,  77 

Senior  high  school,  394 

Short  course,  390 
Cow  testing,  369 

Daily  program,  88 
Devices  for  class  use,  194 
Diseases,  37 

Domestic  economy,  207,  386 
Drainage,  361,  403 
Dramatization,  121,  194 
Drills  for  expression,  126 


427 


428 


INDEX 


Economic  value  of  education,  12 
Equipment  for  lunch,  283 
Evolution  of  school  system,  11 
Examinations,  75 
Exhibits,  332,  401 

Farmers'  clubs,  375 
Flash  card  exercises,  126 
Flies,  355 
Food,  35,  122 

Games,  53,  195 

Gardening,  343 

Geography,  167 

General  industrial  work,  210 

Good  roads,  361 

Group  reading,  103 

High  school  training  departments, 

62 

History,  153 
Hog  cholera,  370 
Hogs,  351 
Home  credits,  365 
Home  economics  booklets,  355 
Home  training,  21 
Horses,  352 

Horticulture  booklets,  340 
Hot  lunch,  279 
Housekeeping,  81 
Hygiene,  28,  122 
Ideal  rural  school,  418 
Industrial  supplies,  213,  400 
Industrial  training,  210 
Insects,  337 
Institutes,  369,  398 

Junior  high  school,  392 


Knots,  233 

Land  values,  396 
Language,  117 
Library  aid,  17 
Literature,  117 
Lunches,  36 
Lyceum  courses,  376 

Manual  training,  303 
Minnesota  plan,  62 
Monotones,  144 
Morals  and  conduct,  123 
Music,  142 

Numbers,  175 
Nursery  classics,  129 

Orchards,  341 
Organization  of 

Farmers'  clubs,  376 

Schools,  381,  410 
Outside  activities,  363 

Pensions,  68 

Phonics,  100,  115 

Pictures,  120 

Play,  38 

Playgrounds,  38 

Poultry,  347 

Practice  teaching,  63 

Premium  list,  402 

Program,  daily,  88 

Projects  for  manual  training,  308 

Punishment,  20,  74 

Qualification  of  industrial  teach- 
ers, 380 


INDEX 


429 


Reading,  100 

Reading  material,  104,  114,  116 

Recess,  43,  92 

Records,  81 

Religion,  26 

Recipes  for  lunches,  287 

Rope  work,  233 

Rotation  of  crops,  335 

Sanitation,  82 
Savings  banks,  403 
Scale  songs,  144 
School  buildings,  424 
School  farm,  208,  383,  396 
School  management,  70 
School  plans,  423 
Seat  work,  187,  191,  192 
Seed  testing,  371 
Sewing,  244 
Sex  hygiene,  27 
Short  course,  389 
Sleeping  rooms,  30 
Social  center,  373 
Special  devices,  194 
Spelling,  136 
State  aid,  16,  382,  410 
State  certificates,  66 
State  normal  schools,  60 


Stitches,  246 
Strawberries,  340 
Study  .program,  90 
Suggestions  to 

Parents,  19 

Teachers,  19 

Tasks  and  duties,  365 

Taxes,  15,  408 

Teachers'  meetings,  85,  399 

Tools,  305 

Training  teachers,  54,  388 

Transportation  of  pupils,  416 

Trend,  of  industrial  education,  202 

Tuberculin  test,  370 

Tuition,  381 

Ungraded  room,  64,  389 

Vacation  schools,  205 
Vegetable  gardening,  343 
Ventilation,  30 

Wages,  67 

Weeds,  336 

Wood  preservatives,  360 

Writing,  132 


Books  and  Equipment 
for  Rural  Schools 

A  Good  Book  Is  an  Inspiration, 
a  Staff  and  a  Step 

We  make  a  specialty  of  supply- 
ing not  only  texts  for  general  school 
use,  but  library  and  reference  books 
and  all  those  which  are  peculiarly 
intended  for  teachers. 

Everything  in  the  nature  of 
books,  permanent  equipment  or 
working  material  which  is  recom- 
mended in  this  book  will  be  either 
furnished  at  lowest  prices  or  we 
will  refer  teachers  to  responsible 
firms  making  a  specialty  of  indus- 
trial supplies. 

We  invite  correspondence  and 
offer  the  service  and  co-operation 
of  our  Educational  Department. 

Webb  Publishing  Company 

55-79  East  Tenth  Street 
ST.  PAUL,  MINNESOTA 


Agricultural  Text  Books  for  High  Schools 

The  four  agricultural  books  described  below  are  planned  especially  for  High 
Schools  in  which  agriculture  is  taught.  They  constitute  a  complete  four  year 
graded  course.  Each  book  is  complete  in  itself  and  is  prepared  to  cover  the  sub- 
ject as  thoroughly  as  the  time  allotted  to  agriculture  in  one  year  will  permit. 

They  are  thoroughly  practical;  they  discuss  subjects  in  their  logical  order,  con- 
tain laboratory  exercises  and  experimental  work,  and  a  list  of  questions  after  each 
chapter  to  emphasize  the  important  features  of  each  lesson.  These  books 
constitute  a  complete,  concise  and  practical  course  that  will  meet  the  urgent  need 
of  the  modern  agricultural  High  School. 

FIELD  CROPS,  by  A.  D.  Wilson,  Superintendent  of  Extension  and  Farmers'  Institutes, 
Minnesota  College  of  Agriculture;  and  C.  W.  Warburton,  Agronomist,  Bureau  of  Plant 
Industry,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.  An  intensely  practical  discussion  of  the 
American  farm  crops  is  presented  in  this  volume,  which  abounds  in  helpful  suggestions 
and  valuable  information  for  the  most  successful  growing,  harvesting,  and  marketing  of 
the  various  crops.  It  is  divided  into  three  parts,  containing  also  two  introductory 
chapters  on  the  classification  of  crops  and  the  growth  of  plants. 

Part  I.     Contains  seven  chapters,  discussing  in  detail  all  of  the  Grain  Crops. 

Part  II.     Contains  twelve  chapters,  discussing  all  of  the  Forage  Crops. 

Part  III.  Contains  six  chapters,  discussing  fully  the  Miscellaneous  Crops,  including: 
potatoes,  sugar  crops,  fibre  crops,  tobacco,  weeds,  rotation,  etc. 

This  is  the  most  complete  and  authentic  book  for  the  purpose  on  the  market.  It 
contains  about  450  pages,  nearly  200  illustrations,  is  printed  on  high  grade  book  paper 
from  clear  type  and  bound  in  a  neat,  handsome  and  durable  cloth  cover. 

Price $1.50  net 

BEGINNINGS  IN  ANIMAL  HUSBANDRY,  by  Chas.  S.  Plumb,  Professor  of  Animal 
Husbandry,  University  of  Ohio,  and  Author  of  "Types  and  Breeds  of  Farm  Animals," 
"Indian  Corn  Culture"  and  "Animal  Husbandry  Literature,"  etc.  This  is  the  first 
volume  prepared  on  the  subject  of  Animal  Husbandry  that  is  particularly  adapted  to  the 
needs  of  high  school  students  in  agriculture.  Professor  Plumb  has  long  been  known  as 
one  of  the  leading  instructors  and  investigators  in  the  Animal  Husbandry  field,  as  a 
Judge  of  live  stock,  and  as  a  clear  thinker  and  interesting  writer  on  live  stock  subjects. 
In  this  new  volume  he  has  concentrated  the  results  of  his  many  years'  experience  in 
teaching  and  experimentation.  The  matter  is  presented  in  a  simple,  practical  manner 
that  makes  it  particularly  valuable  for  the  purpose  for  which  it  is  intended. 

Among  the  important  subjects  which  are  discussed  minutely  are:  Breeds  of  Horses, 
Cattle,  Sheep  and  Swine;  Animal  Type  and  Its  Importance;  Reasons  and  Methods  of 
Judging  Live  Stock;  Points  of  the  Horse;  Judging  Horses,  Cattle,  Sheep,  Swine,  etc.; 
Heredity:  Its  Meaning  and  Influences;  Selection  and  Its  Importance;  Pedigrees  and 
their  Value;  Suggestions  to  Young  Breeders;  Composition  of  Plants  and  Animals; 
Influence  of  Foods  on  Body;  Feeding  Standards,  Origin  and  Use;  How  to  Calculate  a 
Ration;  Coarse  Feeds  and  their  Value;  Concentrated  Feed  and  their  Value;  Poultry: 
Feeding,  Management  and  Marketing;  and  the  General  Management  of  Cattle. 

This  will  be  a  book  of  about  350  pages  profusely  illustrated,  well  printed,  durably 

bound,  Price $1.25  net 

SOILS  AND  SOIL  FERTILITY,  by  A.  R.  Whitson,  Professor  of  Soils,  University  of 
Wisconsin;  and  H.  L.  Walster,  Instructor  of  Soils,  University  of  Wisconsin.  A  book 
especially  prepared  as  a  text  book  on  the  subject  of  soils  for  high  school  courses  in 
agriculture.  Among  the  most  important  subjects  fully  discussed  are:  Conditions  Essential 
to  Plant  Growth;  Origin  of  the  Soil;  Supply  of  Chemical  Elements;  Nitrogen,  Phos- 
phorous and  Potash;  Soil  Analysis;  Manures;  Artificial  Fertilizers;  Physical  Properties  of 
Soils  and  Plant  Growth;  Moisture;  Temperature  and  Ventilation;  Drainage;  Erosion; 
Tillage;  Humus;  Relation  of  Crops  to  Climate  and  Soils;  Rotation  of  Crops;  Classifica- 
tion of  Soils;  Management;  Dry  Farming  and  Irrigation;  Selection  of  Farms.  This  book 
does  not  go  into  the  scientific  detail  of  the  structure  and  chemical  composition  of  soils, 
but  discusses  in  a  simple,  practical  way  the  best  methods  of  handling  the  land  to  pro- 
duce good  crops.  About  300  pages,  well  illustrated,  printed  on  high  grade  paper,  bound 

durably  in  cloth  cover.     Price $1.25  net 

AGRICULTURAL  ENGINEERING,  by  J.  B.  Davidson,  Professor  of  Agricultural 
Engineering,  Iowa  State  College.and  Joint  Author  of  "Farm  Machinery  and  Farm  Motors." 
A  practical  elementary  book  on  the  subjects  of  Rural  Engineering  for  use  in  high  schools. 
The  fundamental  principles  of  agricultural  engineering  are  presented  in  a  simple  practical 
manner,  entirely  within  the  comprehension  of  the  hi?h  school  student. 

Among  the  subjects  discussed  are:  Agricultural  Surveying,  Drainage,  Irrigation,  Road 
Construction;  Farm  Machinery,  including  the  relation  of  Farm  Machinery  to  Farm 
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Machinery,  Harvesting  Machinery,  Combined  Harvester  and  Thresher,  Manure 
Spreaders,  Haying  Machinery,  Threshing  Machinery,  Feed  Cutters,  Huskers  and 
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including  Sources  of  energy,  Transformation  of  energy,  Prime  Movers,  and  hand  work; 
Wind  mill,  Steam  Engine,  Steam  and  Gas  Tractors  and  Electric  Motors;  Farm  struc- 
tures, and  Farm  Sanitation.  This  book  will  contain  about  450  pages  with  many  illus- 
trations from  photographs  and  drawings,  printed  on  high  grade  paper  from  clear  type, 
and  will  be  handsomely  bound  in  durable  cloth  covers.  Price $1.50  net 

Instructors,  teachers  and  students  of  agriculture  will  find  these  books  very  helpful,  as 
they  contain  authentic  information  on  the  various  subjects  discussed,  that  is  given  in 
clear  concise  language  which  is  easily  understood;  exercises  and  experiments  follow  all 
lessons.  Every  effort  has  been  made  to  make  these  books  interesting,  practical  and 
reliable.  Send  all  orders  to 

WEBB  PUBLISHING  COMPANY,        ST.  PAUL,  MINNESOTA. 


VEGETABLE  GARDENING 

By  SAMUEL  B.  GREEN,  late  Professor  of  Horticulture  and  Forestry, 
University  of  Minnesota. 

252  pages,  profusely  illustrated,  cloth.  $1.00.  postpaid. 

A  manual  on  the  growing  of  vegetables  for  home  use  and  for  the 
market.  The  immense  sale  of  this  book  to  farmers  and  gardeners,  and 
its  wide  adoption  for  class-room  work  in  agricultural  schools  and  col- 
leges, prove  it  to  be  the  standard  work  published  on  this  subject.  This 
is  the  12th  revised  edition.  We  have  a  paper  covered  edition  of  this 
book  which  sells  for  50c. 


DAIRY  LABORATORY  GUIDE 

By  G.  L.  MARTIN,  Professor  of  Dairying,  North  Dakota  Agricultural 

College. 

140  pages,  illustrated,  cloth,  50c.  postpaid. 

This  laboratory  manual  offers  a  carefully  organized  series  of  exer- 
cises covering  the  principles  of  modern  dairy  practice,  with  sugges- 
tions for  their  practical  application.  It  covers  the  Production  and  Care, 
Testing,  Manufacture,  and  Marketing,  of  Dairy  Products.  An  indis- 
pensable guide  for  classes  in  Dairying  and  for  Creamerymen. 


SILOS:  CONSTRUCTION  AND  SERVICE 

By  M.  L.  KING,  formerly  Silo  Expert,  Iowa  State  College,  and  Orig- 
inator of  the  Iowa  Silo. 


100  pages,  well  illustrated,  cloth,  50c.  postpaid. 


There  is  no  recent  American  book  on  silo  building,  and  none  of 
any  date  that  covers  the  many  types  of  silos  now  in  use  and  gives 
details  of  their  construction.  Mr.  King  here  presents  to  the  intended 
builder  the  principles  of  silo  construction,  and  the  advantages  and  dis- 
advantages of  each  type;  but  more  particularly  he  gives  the  actual 
method  of  construction,  with  the  main  points  of  silo  management. 


RULES  OF  ORDER  FOR  EVERY  DAY  USE 

AND  CIVIL  GOVERNMENT  MADE  PLAIN 

By  HENRY  SLADE  GOFF,  Author  of  the  Goff's  Historical  Maps. 


113  pages,  illustrated,  cloth,  50c.,  postpaid. 

There  has  long  been  a  demand  for  an  accurate  Rules  of  Order  text 
that  was  brief  yet  sufficiently  complete  for  all  practical  needs.  This 
is  such  a  book.  The  matter  is  so  clear,  so  well  arranged,  and  so  suc- 
cinct that  those  interested  in  social  centers,  clubs,  societies,  etc.,  will 
be  delighted  with  it.  The  book  also  presents  the  main  points  of  civil 
government  that  everyone  ought  to  know. 


14  DAY  USE 

RETURN  TO  DESK  FROM  WHICH  BORROWED 

LOAN  DEPT. 

This  book  is  due  on  the  last  date  stamped  below, 
or  on  the  date  to  which  renewed.  Renewals  only: 

Tel.  No.  642-3405 

Renewals  may  be  made  4  days  prior  to  date  due. 
Renewed  books  are  subject  to  immediate  recall. 


r1^ 


°HOTOOOPy 


FEB  03  1996 


LD2lA-40m-3,'72 
(Qll73slO)476-A-32 


General  Library 

University  of  California 

Berkeley 


YC  83793 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


